UNIT - 4

Magnetic materials: Terminology and

classification, magnetic moments due to electron
spin, ferromagnetism and related phenomena, soft
magnetic materials and hard magnetic materials.

Dielectric materials; Polarization, temperature

and frequency effects, electric breakdown,
ferroelectric materials.

Insulating materials: Types and Properties

Terminology and classification of Magnetic materials:
Introduction:

Magnetic properties play an important role in daily life.

Magnetic materials are used in electric motors, generators,
transformers and also used in data storage technology that
is based on magnetic particles.

Magnetic materials are used in devices like telephones,

televisions, supercomputers, etc. they are also used in
medical technology, for example DNA sequencing.
Magnetism is a phenomenon by which a material exerts
either attractive or repulsive force on another. Basic source
of magnetic force is movement of electrically charged
particles.

Magnetic behavior of a material can be traced to the

structure of atoms. Electrons in atoms have a planetary
motion in that they go around the nucleus.

A physical phenomenon produced by the motion of

electric charge, which results in attractive or repulsive
forces between objects. Thus every material can respond to
a magnetic field.
However, the manner of a material responds depend on
its atomic structure, and determines whether a material
will be strongly or weakly magnetic.

Terminology of Magnetic materials:

Magnetism arises from the magnetic moment or
magnetic dipole of the magnetic materials. When the
electron revolves around the positive nucleus, orbital
magnetic moment arises.

Similarly when the electron spins, spin magnetic

moment arises. They are capable of creating self magnetic
field in the presence of external magnetic field.
There are nearly eleven types of magnetic materials.
Some of them are Dia-magnetic, Para-magnetic and Ferro-
magnetic etc.

Anti-Ferro-magnetic and Ferri-magnetic are considered

as subclasses of Ferro-magnetic.
 First let us see the important terms involved in the
magnetism.
1. Magnetic induction(B):
In any material is the number of lines of magnetic force
passing perpendicularly through unit area. Unit: weber/m2
(or) tesla. It is also equal to the magnetic force by an unit
north pole placed in that magnetic field.
2. Magnetic dipoles:
Magnetic dipoles are substances in which due to internal
atomic currents the substance as a whole possesses a
magnetic dipole moment.
When an electric current “i” ampere flows round a
circular wire of one turn and area “a” m2, it is said to have a
magnetic dipole movement M = ia ampere m2. It is a vector
quantity.
Its direction is normal to the plane of the loop to the right
if the current is clockwise. The magnetic dipole moment
of a current is responsible for magnetic field around the
wire. M = 21m ampere m2. Where m is the poles strength
and 21 is the distance between north and south Pole of the
magnet.
3. Intensity of magnetization(I):
It is a sample of a material is the magnetic moment per
unit volume. Unit: ampere m-1.

4. Magnetic field Intensity(H):

It is the ratio between the magnetic induction and the
permeability of the medium in which the magnetic field
exists. H = B/µ ampere m-1.

5. Magnetic permeability (µ):

It is the ratio of the magnetic induction in the sample to
the applied magnetic field intensity. µ = B/H henry m-1.
6. Magnetic susceptibility (χ):

It is the ratio between the intensity of magnetization

produced in the sample and the intensity of the applied
magnetic field. χ = 1/H, it has no units.
Classification of Magnetic materials:
(a) Diamagnetic materials:
The number of orientations of electronic orbits in an
atom is such that the vector sum of magnetic moments is
zero.
The external field will cause a rotation action on the
individual electronic orbits. This produces an induced
magnetic moment which is in the direction opposite to the
field and hence external magnetic field decreases the
magnetic induction present in the specimen.

Thus the diamagnetism is the phenomenon by which

the induced magnetic moment is always in the opposite
direction of the applied field.
The magnetic material having negative susceptibility is
called a diamagnetic material. In this each atom has no
permanent magnetic moment.

In figure 1.The ordinary material which has no repulsion

or attraction for the magnetic flux lines when it is placed
in an uniform magnetic field.

But in figure.2. There is repulsion of magnetic lines of

force from the centre of the material indicating the
diamagnetic behavior of the magnetic material. 
Materials such as quartz, water, acetone, copper, lead
and carbon dioxide are diamagnetic. These materials are
very weakly affected by magnetic fields.

However, the other forms of magnetism are stronger

than diamagnetism, so the diamagnetism can usually be
ignored unless it is the only magnetism present.

Bout > Bin

When we increase its temperature beyond its critical
temperature diamagnetism suddenly disappears and then
it behaves like a normal material.

Examples: Gold, mercury, bismuth, Copper, niobium and

Water etc.

The properties of diamagnetic materials are

         i. Magnetic susceptibility is negative.
         ii. Relative permeability is slightly less than unity.
        iii. The magnetic field lines are repelled or expelled by
diamagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic field.
        iv. Susceptibility is nearly temperature independent.
(b) Paramagnetic materials:
The number of orientation of orbital and spin magnetic
moments be such that the vector sum of magnetic
moments is not zero and there is a resultant magnetic
moment in each atom even in the absence of applied field.

If we apply the external magnetic field, there is an

enormous magnetic moment along the field direction and
the magnetic induction will increase.

Thus paramagnetic is the phenomenon by which the

orientations of magnetic moments are largely dependent
on temperature and applied field.
If the applied magnetic energy is greater than the
thermal energy, the magnetic moment of the material is
large.

These materials are used in lasers and masers where one

can create the required energy levels for transition.

The magnetization (M) of such materials was discovered

by Madam Curie and is dependent on the external 
magnetic field (B) and temperature T.
Materials such as sodium, oxygen, iron oxide, and
platinum are paramagnetic. They are affected somewhat
more strongly than diamagnetic materials; they become
polarized parallel to a magnetic field.

Thus, in a non-uniform magnetic field, they feel a force

towards the higher field region. Para-magnetism results
from the magnetic forces on unpaired electrons.

Electrons move around atoms in orbitals and maximum

of two electrons can go into each orbital. Electrons that are
alone in an orbital are said to be unpaired.
Examples: Liquid oxygen, sodium, platinum, salts of
iron, nickel, aluminum, chromium magnesium,
molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum etc.
The properties of paramagnetic materials are:

Magnetic susceptibility is positive and small.

Relative permeability is greater than unity.
The magnetic field lines are attracted into the
paramagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic field.
Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature.

The magnetic lines of force are attracted towards the

centre of the material and hence Bin > Bout.
(c) Ferromagnetic materials:
We are most familiar with these materials as they exhibit
the strongest magnetic behavior. If a material acquires a
relatively high magnetization in a weak field then it is
ferromagnetic.

Further even in the absence of applied field, the

magnetic moments are enormous. Ferromagnetism arises
when the exchange energy is favorable for spin alignment.

This property is used to produce Permanent magnets

 that we use every day. Iron, cobalt, nickel, neodymium
and their alloys are usually highly ferromagnetic and are
used to make permanent magnets.
Materials such as iron, nickel, gadolinium, iron oxide,
Manganese Bismuth, and Cobalt Ferrite are ferromagnetic.

These materials are very strongly affected by magnetic

fields. They become strongly polarized in the direction of
the magnetic field, thus, they are strongly attracted to the
high field region when the field isn't uniform.

All of the materials that we are used to calling "magnets"

are ferromagnetic materials. Ferromagnetism results from
the interactions among the electrons in the material.
The magnetic lines of force are highly attracted towards
the centre of the material and hence Bin >> Bout.

It should be no surprise that most applications of

magnetic materials call for ferromagnetic materials. These
are the ones that interact most strongly with magnetic
fields. Within this category there are several important
subcategories.
The properties of ferromagnetic materials are:

Magnetic susceptibility is positive and large.

Relative permeability is large.

The magnetic field lines are strongly attracted into the

ferromagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic field.

Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature.

The ferromagnetic curie temperature is very high.

Anti-ferromagnetism:
Anti-ferromagnetic materials are very similar to
ferromagnetic materials but the exchange interaction
between neighboring atoms leads to the anti-parallel
alignment of the atomic magnetic moments.

Magnetic susceptibility is positive and very small.

Magnetic susceptibility of Anti-ferromagnetic materials
depends upon temperature.

Anti-ferromagnetic materials are ferrous oxide, zinc

ferrite and manganese oxide.
Ferrimagnetism:
Ferri-magnetism is only observed in compounds, which
have more complex crystal structures than pure elements.
Within these materials the exchange interactions lead to
parallel alignment of atoms in some of the crystal sites and
anti-parallel alignment of others.

The magnetisation is in between ferromagnetic and

anti-ferro-magnetic materials. The magnetic susceptibility
is positive and high but it is less than the value of
ferromagnetic materials.

Ferrimagnetism materials are nickel, ferrite, manganese

ferrite and ferrous ferrite.
Magnetic Moments due to Electron Spin:
Permanent magnetic moments can arise from three sources:
The orbital magnetic moment of the electrons corresponding
to the quantum number.
The spin magnetic moment of electrons corresponding to the
spin quantum number.
The spin magnetic moment of the nucleus.

The spin magnetic moments of the electrons are the only

ones that are important from our point of view.
Maximum no. of electrons No. of orbital's
s 2 1
p 6 3
d 10 5
f 14 7
The magnetic moment of an electron spin is taken as
one unit, called the Bohr magneton µB. It has a value of
9.273 x 10–24 A m2. The net magnetic moment of two
electrons of opposite spins is zero.

A number of atoms and molecules, however, have

unpaired electrons. For instance, the alkali metal atoms
have only one electron in the outermost s orbital.
This electron is unpaired and can align itself in an
applied field giving rise to paramagnetism.
26 Fe3+ 3d5 no. of unpaired electrons here n=5
28 Ni2+ 3d8 no. of unpaired electrons here n=2
24 Cr3+ 3d3 no. of unpaired electrons here n=3
66 Dy3+ 4f9 no. of unpaired electrons here n=5.
The order of filling of electron orbitals in atoms is given by
Hund’s rule. A/c to the hund’s rule electron pairing in orbitals
starts only when all available empty orbitals at the same
energy.
An atom with three electrons in a p orbital will have all
three spins aligned, giving rise to a net magnetic moment of
three Bohr magnetons.

On the other hand, an atom with four electrons in the p

orbital will have a net moment of only two units, as the spin of
the fourth electron is opposite to that of the first three.
Similarly, an atom with five electrons in a d orbital has a net
magnetic moment of five units.
But an atom with nine electrons in the d orbital has a net
moment of only one. Seven electrons in an f orbital will give a
net magnetic moment of seven units.

This simple deduction of the net magnetic moment of an

atom has to be modified in the solid state, where the electron
energy levels of the outermost orbitals interact and form
energy bands.

In the transition metals, the energy bands due to the 4s

orbital and the 3d orbital may overlap to some extent. The 4s
electrons spend some time in the 3d band.
If the 3d electrons are five in number, the spins of the
overlapping 4s electrons must be opposite to that of the
unpaired 3d electrons. Such an overlap, therefore, reduces the
net magnetic moment.

The iron atom with an outer electronic configuration of

3d64s2 has a moment of 4 units as a free atom, but has a
moment of only 2.2 as part of the crystal.

Similarly, cobalt with a configuration of 3d74s2 has a

moment of 1.7 and nickel with a configuration of 3d84s2 has a
moment of only 0.6 unit in the crystal.
In the case of gadolinium, the net magnetic moment of
seven in the free atom remains unchanged in the solid state, as
there is no overlap of the 4f orbitals with the other energy
bands.
Ferromagnetism and Related Phenomena:
Hund’s rule is a manifestation of the spin dependent
electrostatic energy of the electrons in an orbital.

Ferromagnetism is the strongest type and is responsible for

the common phenomenon of magnetism in magnets
encountered in everyday life.

The substances which when placed in a magnetic field

become strongly magnetise in the direction of the field is
known as ferromagnetic materials.
When the electrons have the same momentum and the same
spin, a certain distance must separate them from one another.
This physical separation tends to increase their kinetic energy,
but reduces the electrostatic repulsive energy between them.

In the solid state, the outer electronic orbitals of

neighbouring atoms overlap and produce energy bands. The
3d band then contains all paired up electrons and there is no
net magnetic moment in the crystal.
At the left end of the series, the radius of the 3d orbitals in
the atoms is large enough to result in good overlap between
neighbours in the crystalline state.

As we go to the right in the transition series, the 3d orbitals

shrink due to greater attraction from the increasing charge on
the nucleus and consequently the overlap of the 3d orbitals
decreases.
The increase in the Fermi level is directly attributable to the
greater physical separation between electrons.

The net gain in energy, Eunmagnetized – Emagnetized, called the

exchange interaction energy is a sensitive function of the ratio
of the atomic diameter to the 3d orbital diameter.
 Element Ti cr Mn Fe Co Ni
datomic/d3d 1.12 1.18 1.47 1.63 1.82 1.98
orbital

It turns out that, only when this ratio lies between 1.5
and 2.0, the exchange energy is positive and parallel spins
are energetically favoured.

The only other elemental crystals where the exchange

energy is appreciable belong to the first rare earth series
such as gadolinium, terbium and dysprosium. Here, the 4f
electrons align themselves in a parallel fashion.
Among the common metals, only Fe, Co and Ni have
positive exchange energy and are in the spontaneously
magnetized state.

No overlap of the d orbitals occurs in the higher transition

series, as the d electrons are strongly attracted to their
respective nuclei, which have larger positive charges.
Thermal energy tends to randomize the aligned spins, so
that all ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic at
high temperature.

The transition temperature at which all the spin

alignment is lost is called the Curie temperature.

The Curie temperature is a function of the magnitude of

the exchange energy. Cobalt that has the highest exchange
energy has the highest Curie temperature, 1400 K.
Gadolinium with a small exchange energy has a Curie
temperature below room temperature. In some
compounds, the constituent atoms may be
antiferromagnetically coupled, but can have different
magnetic moments.

This would give rise to a net magnetic moment in each

coupling and the sum of the moments of all the couplings
can result in magnetization that is comparable in order of
magnitude to ferromagnetism.
This phenomenon is called ferrimagnetism and is
compared with ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism
in Fig. 16.2
Hard Magnetic Materials:
 The magnetic materials which are not easily magnetised
and demagnetised are known as hard magnetic materials.

The area of hysterisis loop is large, hence the hysterisis loss

is very high. Thus the value of coercivity and retentivity also
high.

These magnets were permanent magnets due to the pinning

of domain walls by dislocations and inclusions.

These magnets had an energy product of approximately

8kJm-1.
Soft Magnetic Materials:
Soft magnetic materials are those materials that are easily
magnetised and demagnetised. They typically have intrinsic
coercivity less than 1000 Am-1.

The area of hysterisis loop is small, hence the hysterisis loss

is low. Thus the value of coercivity and retentivity also small.

The other main parameters of interest are the coercivity, the

saturation magnetisation and the electrical conductivity.
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