Class 11 - Mathematics

Set theory

By – Kamaldeep Saharan

www.yayskool.com
Lesson Introduction – Set Theory

The theory of sets was developed by German

mathematician Georg Cantor (1845-1918). He first

encountered sets while working on “problems on trigonometric

series”. In this Chapter, we discuss some basic definitions

and operations involving sets.

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Set ..…
In everyday life, we often speak of collections of objects of a particular kind, such as, a pack of
cards, a crowd of people, a cricket team, etc. In mathematics also, we come across collections, for
example, of natural numbers, points, prime numbers, etc.
More specially, we examine the following collections:

(i) Odd natural numbers less than 10, i.e., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9

(ii) The rivers of India

(iii) The vowels in the English alphabet, namely, a, e, I, o, u

(iv) Prime factors of 210, namely, 2,3,5 and 7

(v) The solution of the equation: x2 – 5x + 6 = 0, viz, 2 and 3. www.yayskool.com

 Important Points to Remember
We note that each of the above example is a well-defined collection of objects in the sense that we can definitely decide whether a given particular object belongs to a given collection or

not. For example, we can say that the river Nile does not belong to the collection of rivers of India. On the other hand, the river Ganga does belong to this colleciton.

N : the set of all natural numbers

• Z : the set of all integers
• Q : the set of all rational numbers
• R : the set of real numbers
• Z+ : the set of positive integers
• Q+ : the set of positive rational numbers, and
• R+ : the set of positive real numbers.

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Set in simple words
set is a well-defined collection of objects.

The following points may be noted :

i) Objects, elements and members of a set are synonymous terms.
(

(ii) Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, X, Y, Z, etc.

(iii) The elements of a set are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y, z, etc

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 Belongs to.... 🤔🤔

If a is an element of a set A, we say that “ a belongs to A” the Greek symbol ∈

(epsilon) is used to
denote the phrase ‘belongs to’. Thus, we write a ∈ A. If ‘b’ is not
an element of a set A, we write b ∉ A and read “b does not belong to A”.

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 Method of representing a Set
• There are two methods of representing a set :
 1. Roster or tabular form
• In roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, the elements are being
separated by commas and are enclosed within braces { }. For example, the set of
all even positive integers less than 7 is described in roster form as {2, 4, 6}. Some
more examples of representing a set in roster form are given below :

(a) The set of all natural numbers which divide 42 is {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42}.
(b) The set of all vowels in the English alphabet is {a, e, i, o, u}.
(c) The set of odd natural numbers is represented by {1, 3, 5, . . .}. The dots tell us
that the list of odd numbers continue indefinitely.
 Note :-
1. In roster form, the order in which the elements are listed is immaterial. Thus, the
above set can also be represented as {1, 3, 7, 21, 2, 6, 14, 42}.

2. It may be noted that while writing the set in roster form an element is not generally
repeated, i.e., all the elements are taken as distinct. For example, the set of letters
forming the word ‘SCHOOL’ is { S, C, H, O, L} or {H, O, L, C, S}. Here, the order of listing
elements has no relevance .
 2. set-builder form
• In set-builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common property which is
not possessed by any element outside the set. For example, in the set {a, e, i , o, u}, all the
elements possess a common property, namely, each of them is a vowel in the English
alphabet, and no other letter possess this property. Denoting this set by V, we write

V = {x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}

It may be observed that we describe the element of the set by using a symbol x (any other
symbol like the letters y, z, etc. could be used) which is followed by a colon “ : ”. After the
sign of colon, we write the characteristic property possessed by the elements of the set and
then enclose the whole description within braces. The above description of the set V is read
as “the set of all x such that x is a vowel of the English alphabet”. In this description the
braces stand for “the set of all”, the colon stands for “such that”. For example, the set
A = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 10} is read as “the set of all x such
that x is a natural number and x lies between 3 and 10.” Hence, the
numbers 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are the elements of the set A. If we denote the
sets described in (a), (b) and (c) above in roster form by A, B, C, respectively,
then A, B, C can also be represented in set-builder form as follows: A= {x : x
is a natural number which divides 42} B= {y : y is a vowel in the English
alphabet} C= {z : z is an odd natural number}
Example 1 Write the solution set of the equation x 2 + x – 2 = 0 in
roster form.

Solution : The given equation can be written as

(x – 1) (x + 2) = 0, i. e., x = 1, – 2
Therefore, the solution set of the given equation can be written in roster
form as {1, – 2}.
Example 2 : Write the set {x : x is a positive integer and x 2 < 40} in the
roster form.

Solution : The required numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, the given set in

the roster form is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Example 3 : Write the set A = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . . }in set-builder form.

Solution : We may write the set A a

A = {x : x is the square of a natural number}
Alternatively , we can write
A = {x : x = n 2 , where n ∈ N}
 Class 11 - Mathematics

Set theory

By – Kamaldeep Saharan

www.yayskool.com
Types of Set :-
1. The Empty Set :-
Consider the set
A = { x : x is a student of Class XI presently studying in a school }
We can go to the school and count the number of students presently studying in Class XI in the
school. Thus, the set A contains a finite number of elements.
We now write another set B as follows:
B = { x : x is a student presently studying in both Classes X and XI }
We observe that a student cannot study simultaneously in both Classes X and XI. Thus, the set B
contains no element at all
Definition -

A set which does not contain any element is called the empty set or the null set or
the void set.
According to this definition, B is an empty set while A is not an empty set. The empty
set is denoted by the symbol φ or { }.
Examples :-
(i) Let A = {x : 1 < x < 2, x is a natural number}. Then A is the empty set, because there is no
natural number between 1 and 2.
(ii) B = {x : x 2 – 2 = 0 and x is rational number}. Then B is the empty set because the equation x
2 – 2 = 0 is not satisfied by any rational value of x.
2. Finite and Infinite Sets

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {a, b, c, d, e, g}

and C = { men living presently in different parts of the world}
We observe that A contains 5 elements and B contains 6 elements. How many elements
does C contain? As it is, we do not know the number of elements in C, but it is some
natural number which may be quite a big number. By number of elements of a set S, we
mean the number of distinct elements of the set and we denote it by n (S). If n (S) is a
natural number, then S is non-empty finite set.
Consider the set of natural numbers. We see that the number of elements of this set is
not finite since there are infinite number of natural numbers. We say that the set of natural
numbers is an infinite set. The sets A, B and C given above are finite sets and
n(A) = 5, n(B) = 6 and n(C) = some finite number.
 Definition:-
A set which is empty or consists of a definite number of elements is called finite
otherwise, the set is called infinite.

Example :-
(i) Let W be the set of the days of the week. Then W is finite.
(ii) Let S be the set of solutions of the equation x 2 –16 = 0. Then S is finite.
(iii) Let G be the set of points on a line. Then G is infinite.
 When we represent a set in the roster form, we write all the elements of the set within braces { }.
It is not possible to write all the elements of an infinite set within braces { } because the numbers of
elements of such a set is not finite. So, we represent some infinite set in the roster form by writing a
few elements which clearly indicate the structure of the set followed ( or preceded ) by three dots.

For example, {1, 2, 3 . . .} is the set of natural numbers,

{1, 3, 5, 7, . . .} is the set of odd natural numbers,
{. . .,–3, –2, –1, 0,1, 2 ,3, . . .} is the set of integers.
All these sets are infinite.
 NOTE :-

All infinite sets cannot be described in the roster form. For example, the set of real numbers
cannot be described in this form, because the elements of this set do not follow any particular
pattern .
 Examples :-

1) State which of the following sets are finite or infinite :

(i) {x : x ∈ N and (x – 1) (x –2) = 0
(ii) {x : x ∈ N and 2x –1 = 0}
(iii) {x : x ∈ N and x is prime}
(iv) {x : x ∈ N and x is odd}
Solution:- (i) Given set = {1, 2}. Hence, it is finite.
(ii) Given set = φ. Hence, it is finite.
(iii) The given set is the set of all prime numbers and since set of prime numbers is infinite.
Hence the given set is infinite
(iv) Since there are infinite number of odd numbers, hence, the given set is infinite.
 Equal Sets :-

Given two sets A and B, if every element of A is also an element of B and if every element of B is
also an element of A, then the sets A and B are said to be equal. Clearly, the two sets have exactly
the same elements.

Definition :- Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements
and we write A = B. Otherwise, the sets are said to be unequal and we write A ≠ B.
Examples :-

(I) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 1, 4, 2}. Then A = B.

(ii) Let A be the set of prime numbers less than 6 and P the set of prime factors of 30.
Then A and P are equal, since 2, 3 and 5 are the only prime factors of 30 and also
these are less than 6.

NOTE :- A set does not change if one or more elements of the set are repeated. For example,
the sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 2, 1, 3, 3} are equal, since each element of A is in B and
vice-versa. That is why we generally do not repeat any element in describing a set
Example :- Find the pairs of equal sets, if any, give reasons:

A = {0}, B = {x : x > 15 and x < 5},

C = {x : x – 5 = 0 }, D = {x: x 2 = 25},
E = {x : x is an integral positive root of the equation x 2 – 2x –15 = 0}.

Solution :- Since 0 ∈ A and 0 does not belong to any of the sets B, C, D and E,
it follows that, A ≠ B, A ≠ C, A ≠ D, A ≠ E.
Since B = φ but none of the other sets are empty. Therefore B ≠ C, B ≠ D and B ≠ E.
Also C = {5} but –5 ∈ D, hence C ≠ D
Since E = {5}, C = E. Further, D = {–5, 5} and E = {5}, we find that, D ≠ E. Thus, the
only pair of equal sets is C and E.
Example :- Which of the following pairs of sets are
equal? Justify your answer.

(i) X, the set of letters in “ALLOY” and B, the set of letters in “LOYAL”.
(ii) A = {n : n ∈ Z and n 2 ≤ 4} and B = {x : x ∈ R and x 2 – 3x + 2 = 0}.
Solutions :-
(i) We have, X = {A, L, L, O, Y}, B = {L, O, Y, A, L}. Then X and B are equal sets
as repetition of elements in a set do not change a set. Thus,
X = {A, L, O, Y} = B
(ii) A = {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}, B = {1, 2}. Since 0 ∈ A and 0 ∉ B, A and B are not
equal sets.
 Class 11 - Mathematics

Set theory

By – Kamaldeep Saharan

www.yayskool.com
 Venn Diagrams :-
• Most of the relationships between sets can be represented by means of
diagrams which are known as Venn diagrams. Venn diagrams are named after
the English logician, John Venn (1834-1883). These diagrams consist of
rectangles and closed curves usually circles. The universal set is represented
usually by a rectangle and its subsets by circles.

Here U is the universal set

And A is a subset

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Operations on Sets :-
1). Union of sets :-
Let A and B be any two sets. The union of A and B is the set which
consists of all the elements of A and all the elements of B, the common elements being
taken only once. The symbol ‘∪’ is used to denote the union. Symbolically, we write A ∪ B
and usually read as ‘A union B’.

Example:- Let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 6, 8, 10, 12}. Find A ∪ B.

Solution :- We have A ∪ B = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}

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Some Properties of the Operation of Union :-

(i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative law)

(ii) ( A ∪ B ) ∪ C = A ∪ ( B ∪ C) (Associative law )

(iii) A ∪ φ = A (Law of identity element, φ is the identity of ∪)

(iv) A ∪ A = A (Idempotent law) (v) U ∪ A = U (Law of U)

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2) . Intersection of sets
• The intersection of sets A and B is the set of all elements which are common to
both A and B. The symbol ‘∩’ is used to denote the intersection. The intersection
of two sets A and B is the set of all those elements which belong to both A and B.
Symbolically, we write A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
Example :- Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 }. Find A ∩ B and hence
show that A ∩ B = B.
Solution :- We have A ∩ B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 } = B. We note that B ⊂ A and that A ∩ B = B.

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

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Some Properties of Operation of Intersection

(i) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law).

(ii) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) (Associative law).
(iii) φ ∩ A = φ, U ∩ A = A (Law of φ and U).
(iv) A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law)
(v) A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ) (Distributive law ) i. e., ∩ distributes over ∪

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3). Difference of sets
The difference of the sets A and B in this order is the set of elements which belong
to A but not to B. Symbolically, we write A – B and read as “ A minus B”.

Example :- Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 }. Find A – B and B – A.

Solution :- We have, A – B = { 1, 3, 5 }, since the elements 1, 3, 5 belong to A but
not to B and B – A = { 8 }, since the element 8 belongs to B and not to A. We note
that A – B ≠ B – A

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 Class 11 - Mathematics

Set theory

By – Kamaldeep Saharan

www.yayskool.com
Complement of a Set :-
Let U be the universal set which consists of all prime numbers and A be the subset
of U which consists of all those prime numbers that are not divisors of 42.
Thus, A = {x : x ∈ U and x is not a divisor of 42 }. We see that 2 ∈ U but 2 ∉ A,
because 2 is divisor of 42. Similarly, 3 ∈ U but 3 ∉ A, and 7 ∈ U but 7 ∉ A. Now 2, 3
and 7 are the only elements of U which do not belong to A. The set of these three
prime numbers, i.e., the set {2, 3, 7} is called the Complement of A with respect to U,
and is denoted by A′.
So we have A′ = {2, 3, 7}.
Thus, we see that A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A }.
This leads to the following definition.

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Definition :-
Let U be the universal set and A a subset of U. Then the complement of A is
the set of all elements of U which are not the elements of A. Symbolically, we
write A′ to denote the complement of A with respect to U. Thus,

A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A }. Obviously A′ = U – A

We note that the complement of a set A can be looked upon, alternatively,

as the difference between a universal set U and the set A

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Example :- Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Find A′.
Solution :- We note that 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 are the only elements of U which do not
belong to A.
Hence A′ = { 2, 4, 6, 8,10 }.

Note :- If A is a subset of the universal set U, then its complement A′ is also a subset of
U.
Again in Example above, we have A′ = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 }
Hence (A′)′= {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A′}
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = A
It is clear from the definition of the complement that for any subset of the universal set
U, we have ( A′)′ = A

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Example :- Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}.
Find A′, B′ , A′ ∩ B′, A ∪ B and hence show that ( A ∪ B )′ = A′∩ B′
Solution :- Clearly A′ = {1, 4, 5, 6}, B′ = { 1, 2, 6 }.
Hence A′ ∩ B′ = { 1, 6 }
Also A ∪ B = { 2, 3, 4, 5 },
so that (A ∪ B)′ = { 1, 6 } ( A ∪ B )′ = { 1, 6 } = A′ ∩ B′
Complement of a Set in venn diagram
 Some Properties of Complement Sets
1.Complement laws: (i) A ∪ A′ = U (ii) A ∩ A′ = φ
2. De Morgan’s law: (i) (A ∪ B)´ = A′ ∩ B′ (ii) (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
3. Law of double complementation : (A′)′ = A
4. Laws of empty set and universal set φ′ = U and U′ = φ
Practical Problems on Union and Intersection of Two
Sets :-
Let A and B be finite sets. If A ∩ B = φ, then
(i) n( A ∪ B ) = n( A ) + n( B ) ... (1)

In general, if A and B are finite sets, then

(ii) n( A ∪ B ) = n( A ) + n( B ) – n( A ∩ B ) ... (2)

If A, B and C are finite sets, then

(iii) n(A∪B∪C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A∩B) – n(B∩C) – n(A∩C) +
n(A∩B∩C) ... (3)
Example :- If X and Y are two sets such that X ∪ Y has 50 elements, X has 28 elements and Y
has 32 elements, how many elements does X ∩ Y have ?
Solution :- Given that
n( X ∪ Y ) = 50, n( X ) = 28, n( Y ) = 32, n(X ∩ Y) = ?
by using formulla
n( X ∪ Y ) = n( X ) + n ( Y ) – n( X ∩ Y ),
we find that
n ( X ∩ Y ) = n ( X ) + n ( Y ) – n ( X ∪ Y ) = 28 + 32 – 50 = 10
 Thank you!

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