ALTERNATING CURRENTS

1. Alternating EMF and Current

2. Average or Mean Value of Alternating EMF and Current
3. Root Mean Square Value of Alternating EMF and Current
4. A C Circuit with Resistor
5. A C Circuit with Inductor
6. A C Circuit with Capacitor
7. A C Circuit with Series LCR – Resonance and Q-Factor
8. Graphical Relation between Frequency vs XL, XC
9. Power in LCR A C Circuit
10. Watt-less Current
11. L C Oscillations
12. Transformer
13. A.C. Generator
Alternating emf:
Alternating emf is that emf which continuously changes in magnitude and
periodically reverses its direction.
Alternating Current:
Alternating current is that current which continuously changes in magnitude
and periodically reverses its direction.

E = E0 sin ωt E = E0 cos ωt
E ,I I = I0 sin ωt E ,I I = I0 cos ωt
E0 E0
I0 I0
0 0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt

T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t t

E, I – Instantaneous value of emf and current Symbol of

E0, I0 – Peak or maximum value or amplitude of emf AC Source
and current
ω – Angular frequency t – Instantaneous time
ωt – Phase
Average or Mean Value of Alternating Current:
Average or Mean value of alternating current over half cycle is that steady
current which will send the same amount of charge in a circuit in the time of
half cycle as is sent by the given alternating current in the same circuit in
the same time.
dq = I dt = I0 sin ωt dt
T/2

q = ∫ I0 sin ωt dt
0

q = 2 I0 / ω = 2 I0 T / 2π = I0 T / π

Mean Value of AC, Im = Iav = q / (T/2)

Im = Iav = 2 I0 / π = 0.637 I0 = 63.7 % I0

Average or Mean Value of Alternating emf:

Em = Eav = 2 E0 / π = 0.637 E0 = 63.7%E0

Note: Average or Mean value of alternating current or emf is zero over a

cycle as the + ve and – ve values get cancelled.
Root Mean Square or Virtual or Effective Value of
Alternating Current:
Root Mean Square (rms) value of alternating current is that steady current
which would produce the same heat in a given resistance in a given time as
is produced by the given alternating current in the same resistance in the
same time.
dH = I2R dt = I02 R sin2 ωt dt
T

H = ∫ I02 R sin2 ωt dt
0

H = I02 RT / 2 (After integration, ω is replaced with 2 π / T)

If Iv be the virtual value of AC, then
H = Iv 2 RT Iv = Irms = Ieff = I0 / √2 = 0.707 I0 = 70.7 % I0

Root Mean Square or Virtual or Effective Value of Alternating

emf: Ev = Erms = Eeff = E0 / √2 = 0.707 E0 = 70.7 % E0
Note:
1. Root Mean Square value of alternating current or emf can be calculated over any
period of the cycle since it is based on the heat energy produced.
2. Do not use the above formulae if the time interval under the consideration is less than
one period.
Relative Values Peak,
Virtual and Mean Values of
E0
Alternating emf: Ev
Em
0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt

T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T

t
Ev = Erms = Eeff = 0.707E0

Tips:
1. The given values of alternating emf and current are virtual values unless
otherwise specified.
i.e. 230 V AC means Ev = Erms = Eeff = 230 V
2. AC Ammeter and AC Voltmeter read the rms values of alternating current
and voltage respectively.
They are called as ‘hot wire meters’.
 HOTS

If the rms current in a 50 Hz a.c circuit is

5A,the value of the current 1/300 s after its
value becomes zero is???? [7.52]

I rms = 5A , Im = 5 x √2 A, w=2πf= 100 π

I= Im sin wt (at t= 1/300 s)
I= (5√3)/2 A
 A VECTOR
THAT ROTATES
ABOUT ORIGIN
WITH
ANGULAR
SPEED W

THE
THE ANGLE AC CURRENT MAGNITUDES
BETWEEN TWO OF THE
PHASORS GIVE AND VOLTAGE PHASORS
THE PHASE
RELATIONSHIP
REPRESENTATI REPRESENT
BETWEEN THE ON : THE PEAK OR
OSCILLATING AMPLITUDE OF
QUANTITIES. PHASORS OSCILLATING
QUANTITIES

THE PROJECTION
OF THE PHASORS
ALONG Y -AXIS
REPRESENT THE
INSTANTANEOUS
VALUE OF
OSCILLATING
QUANTIITY
AC Circuit with a Pure Resistor: R
E = E0 sin ωt

I=E/R
= (E0 / R) sin ωt E = E0 sin ωt

I = I0 sin ωt (where I0 = E0 / R and R = E0 / I0)

Emf and current are in same phase. ????

E = E0 sin ωt y
E ,I I = I0 sin ωt
E0 E0
I0
I0
0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt

T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T

t 0 ωt
x
The avergae value alternating voltage /current over a
complete cycle is zero!!

Does this imply that average value of power

dissipated over a complete cycle will also be
Zero??????
 In terms of rms
value :

Power = Irms Vrms

Instant
aneou
s
power
and
averag
e
power!
!!!
 BASIC CONCEPTS BASED VSA

1. When a lamp is connected to an alternating

voltage supply,it lights with the same brightness as
when connected to a 12 V d.c battery. What is the
peak value of the voltage source???

Peak Value= 12 √2= 17 V

2.The instantaneous current and voltage of an ac

circuit are given by I= 10 sin 300 t and V=200 sin
300 t .What is the power dissipation in the circuit??

Power= Vrms Irms = 1000 W

 AC Circuit with a Pure Inductor:
E = E0 sin ωt
Induced emf in the inductor is - L (dI / dt) L
In order to maintain the flow of current, the
applied emf must be equal and opposite to
the induced emf. E = E0 sin ωt

I = ∫ (E0 / L) sin ωt dt
E = L (dI / dt)
I = (E0 / ωL) ( - cos ωt )
E0 sin ωt = L (dI / dt)
I = I0 sin (ωt - π / 2)
dI = (E0 / L) sin ωt dt
(where I0 = E0 / ωL and XL = ωL = E0 / I0) Current lags behind emf by π/2 rad.
XL is
Inductive Reactance. Its SI unit is ohm. y E0
E = E0 sin ωt
E ,I I = I0 sin (ωt - π / 2)
E0
I0
ωt
0 0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt π/2 x
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t I0
POWER
INST
ANT.
POW
ER
AVG.
(T)
 MAGNETISATION AND
DEMAGNETISATION OF AN INDUCTOR
 BASIC CONCEPTS BASED VSA

1. An ideal inductoris in turn put across a 220 V ,

50Hz and 220 V, 100 Hz Supplies . Will the current
flowing through it in the two casesbe same or
different??

XL α Frequency(less
current for 100 Hz)

2.The instantaneous current and voltage of an a.c

circuit is given by I=10 sin 314 t and V= 50 sin (314
t +π/2). What is the power dissipation in the
circuit??

Voltage is leading current by

π/2 , power loss=0
 THINK
AND
ANSWER

A light bulb and an open coil inductor are connected

to an ac source through a key. The Switch is closed
and after sometime , an iron rod is inserted into the
interior of the inductor. The glow of the light bulb (a)
increases (b) Decreases (c) is unchanged , as the
iron rod is inserted. Give your answer with reason .
[Example 7.5]
AC Circuit with a Capacitor:
E = E0 sin ωt C

q = CE = CE0 sin ωt
E = E0 sin ωt
I = dq / dt
= (d / dt) [CE0 sin ωt] (where I0 = E0 / (1 / ωC) and
I = [E0 / (1 / ωC)] ( cos ωt )
I = I0 sin (ωt + π / 2) XC = 1 / ωC = E0 / I0)

XC is Capacitive
Current leads the emf by π/2 radians.
Reactance.
Its SI unit is ohm. y E0
E = E0 sin ωt
E ,I I = I0 sin (ωt + π / 2)
I0
E0
I0
π/2
0 ωt
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt
0 x
T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T
t
Variation of XL with Frequency:
XL
I0 = E0 / ωL and XL = ωL
XL is Inductive Reactance and ω = 2π f

XL = 2π f L i.e. XL α f
0 f

Variation of XC with Frequency:

XC
I0 = E0 / (1/ωC) and XC = 1 / ωC
XC is Inductive Reactance and ω = 2π f

XC = 1 / 2π f C i.e. XC α 1 / f
0 f

TIPS:
1) Inductance (L) can not decrease Direct Current. It can only decrease
Alternating Current.
2) Capacitance (C) allows AC to flow through it but blocks DC.
POWER
INST
ANT.
POW
ER
AVG.
(T)
 BASIC CONCEPTS BASED VSA

1Find the capacitance of the capacitor

that would have a reactance of 100
ohm when used with an a.c source of
frequency 5/π kHz[7.16].

C= 1/ Xc 2πf= 1µF
 L R
AC Circuit with L, C, R in Series C
Combination: VR
VL
The applied emf appears as VC
Voltage drops VR, VL and VC across
R, L and C respectively.
1) In R, current and voltage are in E = E0 sin ωt
phase. VL VL
2) In L, current lags behind voltage by
π/2 - VC
3) In C, current leads the voltage by π/2 π/2
π/2 0
π/2 I VR I VR
E = √ [VR2 + (VL – VC)2] VC VC
E
I= E
√ [R2 + (XL – XC)2] VL - V C Φ

Z = √ [R2 + (XL – XC)2] I VR

E = √ [VR2 + (VL – VC)2]
Z = √ [R + (ω L – 1/ωC) ]
2 2

XL – X C ω L – 1/ωC
tan Φ = or tan Φ =
R R
 XL – X C ω L – 1/ωC
tan Φ = or tan Φ =
R R

Special Cases:
Case I: When XL > XC i.e. ω L > 1/ωC,
tan Φ = +ve or Φ is +ve
The current lags behind the emf by phase angle Φ and the LCR
circuit is inductance - dominated circuit.

Case II: When XL < XC i.e. ω L < 1/ωC,

tan Φ = -ve or Φ is -ve
The current leads the emf by phase angle Φ and the LCR circuit is
capacitance - dominated circuit.
Case III: When XL = XC i.e. ω L = 1/ωC,
tan Φ = 0 or Φ is 0°
The current and the emf are in same phase. The impedance does
not depend on the frequency of the applied emf. LCR circuit
behaves like a purely resistive circuit.
 Let's Answer these Questions!
1.In a Series LCR circuit,the voltage across an
inductor,a capacitor and a resistor are 20V,20V and
40 V.What is the phase difference between the
applied voltage and the current in the circuit ..

Zero,as voltage across

inductor and capacitor
nullify each other.

2.A capacitor of 50µF, a resistor 10Ω and an

inductor L are in series with an a.c source of
frequency 50 Hz. Calculate the value of L, if the
phase angle between current and voltage is Zero.

L=1/cw2 ,L=0.5 H(XL=XW)

Resonance in AC Circuit with L, C, R:
When XL = XC i.e. ω L = 1/ωC, tan Φ = 0 or Φ is 0° and
Z = √ [R2 + (ω L – 1/ωC)2] becomes Zmin = R and I0max = E / R
i.e. The impedance offered by the circuit is minimum and the
current is maximum. This condition is called resonant condition
of LCR circuit and the frequency is called resonant frequency.
At resonant angular frequency ωr, R1 < R2 < R 3

ωr L = 1/ωrC or ωr = 1 / √LC or fr = 1 / (2π √LC) I0

Resonant Curve & Q - Factor: I0max

Band width = 2 ∆ ω
Quality factor (Q – factor) is defined as the
R1
ratio of resonant frequency to band width. I0max / √2

Q = ωr / 2 ∆ ω
It can also be defined as the ratio of potential R2
drop across either the inductance or the
R3
capacitance to the potential drop across the
resistance. 0 ωr ω
Q = VL / VR or Q = VC / VR ωr - ∆ ω ωr + ∆ ω
or Q = ωr L / R or Q = 1 / ωrCR
Power in AC Circuit with L, C, R:
E = E0 sin ωt
I = I0 sin (ωt + Φ) (where Φ is the phase angle between emf and current)
Instantaneous Power = E I
= E0 I0 sin ωt sin (ωt + Φ)
= E0 I0 [sin2 ωt cosΦ + sin ωt cosωt cosΦ]

If the instantaneous power is assumed to be constant for an

infinitesimally small time dt, then the work done is
dW = E0 I0 [sin2 ωt cosΦ + sin ωt cosωt cosΦ]
Work done over a complete cycle is
T

W = ∫ E0 I0 [sin2 ωt cosΦ + sin ωt cosωt cosΦ] dt

0
W = E0I0 cos Φ x T / 2

Average Power over a cycle is Pav = W / T

Pav = (E0I0/ 2) cos Φ (where cos Φ = R / Z
Pav = (E0/√2) (I0/ √2) cos Φ = R /√ [R2 + (ω L – 1/ωC)2]
is called Power Factor)
Pav = Ev Iv cos Φ
 Let's Answer these Questions!
Q.A series LCR circuit with L = 0.12 H, C = 480 nF, R =
23 Ω is connected
to a 230 V variable frequency supply.
(a) What is the source frequency for which current
amplitude is
maximum. Obtain this maximum value.
(b) What is the source frequency for which average
power absorbed
by the circuit is maximum. Obtain the value of this
maximum
power.
(c) For which frequencies of the source is the power
transferred to
the circuit half the power at resonant frequency? What
is the
current amplitude at these frequencies?
(d) What is the Q-factor of the given circuit?[NCERT ,Q
20,7.11]
 Pav = Ev Iv cos Φ Wattless Current or Idle
Current:
Power in AC Circuit with R: Ev
In R, current and emf are in phase.
Φ = 0° Iv cos Φ Iv
Φ
Pav = Ev Iv cos Φ = Ev Iv cos 0° = Ev Iv 90°

Power in AC Circuit with L: Iv sin Φ

In L, current lags behind emf by π/2. The component Iv cos Φ

Φ = - π/2 generates power with Ev.
Pav = Ev Iv cos (-π/2) = Ev Iv (0) = 0 However, the component
Iv sin Φ does not
Power in AC Circuit with C: contribute to power along
In C, current leads emf by π/2. Ev and hence power
generated is zero. This
Φ = + π/2
component of current is
Pav = Ev Iv cos (π/2) = Ev Iv (0) = 0 called wattless or idle
current.
Note: P = Ev Iv sin Φ cos 90° = 0
Power (Energy) is not dissipated in Inductor and Capacitor and hence they
find a lot of practical applications and in devices using alternating current.
L C Oscillations:
L L
+++++ + + +
L C C C
- - - - - - - -

At t = 0, UE=Max. & UB=0 At t = T/8, UE = UB At t = 2T/8, UE=0 & UB=Max.

L L L
- - - - - - - - - - -
C C C
+ + + +++++ + + +

At t =3T/8, UE = UB At t = 4T/8, UE=Max. & UB=0 At t =5T/8, UE = UB

L L
+ + + +++++
L
C C
- - - - - - - -C

At t = 6T/8, UE=0 & UB=Max. At t =7T/8, UE = UB At t =T, UE=Max. & UB=0

q0 q0

q
q
0 0
t t

Undamped Oscillations Damped Oscillations

If q be the charge on the capacitor at any time t and dI / dt the rate of

change of current, then

L dI / dt + q / C = 0 The final equation represents Simple

or L (d2q / dt2) + q / C = 0 Harmonic Electrical Oscillation with
ω as angular frequency.
or d2q / dt2 + q / (LC) = 0
So, ω = 1 / √LC
Putting 1 / LC = ω2
or 1
d q / dt + ω q = 0
2 2 2
f=
2π √LC
Transformer:
Transformer is a device which converts lower alternating voltage at higher
current into higher alternating voltage at lower current.
Principle:
Transformer is based on
Mutual Induction.
It is the phenomenon of
inducing emf in the
P
secondary coil due to S Load
change in current in the
primary coil and hence the
change in magnetic flux in
the secondary coil.

Theory:
EP = - NP dΦ / dt For an ideal transformer, Efficiency (η):
ES = - NS dΦ / dt Output Power = Input Power η = ESIS / EPIP

ES / EP = NS / NP = K ESIS = EPIP For an ideal

transformer η
(where K is called ES / EP = IP / IS
is 100%
Transformation Ratio ES / EP = IP / IS = NS / NP
or Turns Ratio)
 Step - up Transformer: Step - down Transformer:

P S Load P S

Load

NS > NP i.e. K > 1 NS < NP i.e. K < 1

ES > EP & I S < I P ES < EP & I S > I P

Energy Losses in a Transformer:

1. Copper Loss: Heat is produced due to the resistance of the copper
windings of Primary and Secondary coils when current flows through
them.
This can be avoided by using thick wires for winding.
2. Flux Loss: In actual transformer coupling between Primary and Secondary
coil is not perfect. So, a certain amount of magnetic flux is wasted.
Linking can be maximised by winding the coils over one another.
3. Iron Losses:
a) Eddy Currents Losses:
When a changing magnetic flux is linked with the iron core, eddy
currents are set up which in turn produce heat and energy is wasted.
Eddy currents are reduced by using laminated core instead of a solid iron
block because in laminated core the eddy currents are confined with in
the lamination and they do not get added up to produce larger current.
In other words their paths are broken instead of continuous ones.

b) Hysteresis Loss:
When alternating current is
passed, the iron core is
magnetised and demagnetised
repeatedly over the cycles and
some energy is being lost in the
process. Solid Core Laminated Core

This can be minimised by using suitable material with thin hysteresis loop.

4. Losses due to vibration of core: Some electrical energy is lost in the

form of mechanical energy due to vibration of the core and humming
noise due to magnetostriction effect.
 Let's Answer these Questions!
Q.Calculate the current drawn by the
primary of a transformer ,which steps down
200V to 20 V to operate a device of
resistance 20 ohm. Assume the efficiency of
the transformer to be 80 %. [Delhi 2001,
AI,2007],7.30
 Let's Answer these Questions!
Q. A town ,situated 20 km away from a
power plant generating power at 440 V ,
requires 600kW of electric power at
220V.The resistance of the two-wire line
carrying power is 0.4 Ω per km . The town
gets power from the line through a 3000-220V
step down transfromer at a sub station in the
town.

(a) Find the line power losses in form of heat.

(b) How much power must the plant supply ,
assuming there is negligible power loss due to
leakage ? [AI 2003,7.45]
***