AC FUNDAMENTALS

Periodic waves
A periodic wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium oscillate
continuously repeating their vibratory motion regularly at fixed intervals of time.
A wave whose displacement has a periodic variation with time or distance, or both.
 

A number of parameters can be defined to describe a periodic wave:

Frequency - One of the most important properties of waveform is to identify the

number of complete cycles it goes through in a fixed period of time. For standard
measurements, the period of time is one second, so the frequency of the wave is
commonly measured in cycles per second (cycles/sec) and, in normal usage, is
expressed in units of Hertz (Hz). It is represented by the letter ‘f ’.

Period - Sometimes we need to know the amount of time required to complete

one cycle of the waveform, rather than the number of cycles per second of time.
This is logically the reciprocal of frequency. Thus, period is the time duration of
one cycle of the waveform, and is measured in seconds/cycles or seconds.
Wavelength (λ)- A waveform moves physically as well as changing in time,
sometimes we need to know how far it moves in one cycle of the wave, rather than
how long that cycle takes to complete. This of course depends on how fast the
wave is moving as well. The Greek letter (lambda) is used to represent wavelength
in mathematical expressions. And, λ= c/f. As shown in the figure to the above,
wavelength can be measured from any part of one cycle to the equivalent point in
the next cycle. Wavelength is very similar to period except that wavelength is
measured in distance (or length) per cycle while period is measured in time per
cycle.

Amplitude (A) - the maximum distance a particle gets from its undisturbed

position. 

Types of Periodic Waveform

AC Waveform

Direct Current or D.C. as it is more commonly called, is a form of current that

flows around an electrical circuit in one direction only, making it a
“Unidirectional” supply.

DC Circuit and Waveform

AC Waveform on the other hand is defined as one that varies in both magnitude
and direction in more or less an even manner with respect to time making it a “Bi-
directional” waveform.
GENERATING AC VOLTAGES
Thus the expression for induced e.m.f. generated in each conductor is given by

e.m.f. generated = Blv sinθ volt

The total e.m.f. generated in the loop = 2Blv sinθ volt

where, B= Flux density of the magnetic field in wb/m2

l= active length of the conductor in meter

v = linear velocity of the conductor in meter/sec.

ω = θ / t = angular velocity of the conductor in radian / sec.

Now Em = 2Blv volts = Maximum value of the induced e.m.f. in the conductor.
This is achieved at θ=90°.

Hence the equation giving the instantaneous e.m.f. induced in the conductor is
given by

e = Em sinθ volts.

Alternating Current or Voltage

• A sinusoidal ac waveform starts at zero

– Increases to a positive maximum

 – Decreases to zero

– Changes polarity

– Increases to a negative maximum

– Returns to zero.

Alternating Waveform

In the figure above, Em represents the maximum value of the e.m.f. and e is the
value of the e.m.f. after the loop or the conductors has been rotated through an
angle θ from the position of zero e.m.f.
AC Waveform Characteristics
1. Period
 The time required for an ac waveform to complete one full cycle is called
the period (T).
 A cycle consists of one complete positive, and one complete negative
alternation.
The period of a given ac wave is the same for each cycle

Measurement of the period

The period of a sine wave can be measured between any two corresponding points

on the waveform.
 2. Frequency
 Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles that an ac wave completes in
one second.
– The more cycles completed in one second, the higher the Frequency.
– Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz)
 Relationship between frequency ( f ) and period (T) is: f = 1/T
Illustration of frequency

T = 333mS T = 200mS
F = 3Hz F = 5Hz
(3 Cycles/Sec) (5 Cycles/Second)

3. Amplitude
  The Amplitude is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform
measured in volts or amps.

 Amplitude, better known as its Maximum or Peak value represented

by the terms, Vmax (Vp),Vm for voltage or Imax (Ip) for current. The peak
value of an ac wave is the value of voltage or current at the positive or
negative maximum with respect to zero.

★ Peak-to-Peak Values
 The peak-to-peak value of an ac wave is the voltage or current from the
positive peak to the negative peak.
 The peak-to-peak value is twice the actual voltage value
 Not Often Used
 The peak-to-peak values are represented as:Vpp and Ipp where: Vpp =
2Vp and Ipp = 2Ip

8V Peak (Actual Value) = 16V Peak-To-Peak

4. Average Value
  The average value of an AC current or voltage is the average of all the
instantaneous values during one alternation. They are actually DC values.

Considering the general case of a voltage waveform which cannot be represented

by a simple mathematical expression. Figure below shows this waveform.

Average Value of an AC Waveform

Where: n equals the actual number of mid-ordinates taken over either the positive
or the negative half cycle.

Or alternatively

Vaverage = area enclosed over half cycle / length of the base over half cycle.

Similarly if it is a current waveform similar in nature of that of a voltage waveform

as shown above
Where: n equals the actual number of mid-ordinates used.

Or alternatively

Iaverage = area enclosed over half cycle / length of the base over half cycle.

5. R.M.S. Value
 Fig. RMS Value of ac waveform

If the current (a) represented in above Fig. is passed through a resistor having
resistance R ohms, the heating effect of i1 is i12 R, that of i2 is i 22R, etc. as shown in
Fig. (b).The variation of the heating effect during the second half-cycle is exactly
the same as that during the first half-cycle.
Average heating effect = (i12R + i22R + ………..in2R) / n
Let I to be the value of direct current through the same resistance R to produce a
heating effect equal to the average heating effect of the alternating current, then

= square root of the mean of the squares of the current

= root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of current

  The r.m.s (root mean square) value, or effective value, of an alternating
current is defined as that value of steady current which would produce the
same heating effect in the same resistance.
 It is sometimes called the resistive DC equivalent value.
 Most AC sources are specified with the RMS Value.
Consider the two circuits shown below:

If the bulbs light with the same brightness (that is, they are working at the same
power), then it would be logical to regard the current Iac as being equivalent to the
current Idc.

The power dissipated by the direct current is P = I 2dcR and the power dissipated by
the alternating current is P = I2acR = I2rmsR.

When the same amount of heat is being produced by the resistor in both
setups, the ac voltage has an rms value equal to the dc voltage.

Alternatively, the average heating effect or mean power may be expressed as :

Average heating effect over half cycle = area enclosed by i²R curve over half
cycle / length of the base.

Form Factor and Crest Factor

Form Factor is the ratio between the average value and the RMS value and is
given as:

For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Form Factor will always be equal to 1.11.
Crest Factor is the ratio between the R.M.S. value and the Peak value of the
waveform and is given as:

For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Crest Factor will always be equal to 1.414.

Average and R.M.S. values of Sinusoidal Waveform

 Average and R.M.S. value of Sinusoidal current
For a very small interval dθ radians, the area of the shaded strip is i · dθ ampere
radians. The use of the unit ‘ampere radian’ avoids converting the scale on the
horizontal axis from radians to seconds.
Therefore total area enclosed by the current wave over half-cycle is

From the above

Average value of current over half cycle = Iav = 2Im ampere radian / π radian
=0.637ampere.
If the current is passed through a resistor having resistance R ohms, instantaneous
heating effect = i 2R watts. The variation of i 2R during a complete cycle is shown
in Fig.(b). During interval dθ radians, heat generated is i 2R · dθ watt radians and is
represented by the area of the shaded strip. Hence
Heat generated during the first half-cycle = area enclosed by the i 2R curve

The average heating effect = (π / 2)Im2R watt radian / π radian = (Im2R / 2) watts.
If I is the value of direct current through the same resistance to produce the same
heating effect,
I2R = (Im2R / 2) and I = Im / √2 = 0.707Im
REPRESENTATION OF AN ALTERNATING QUANTITY
BY A PHASOR

A vector is a quantity having direction as well as magnitude, especially as

determining the position of one point in space relative to another.

Phasor
 A rotating vector, simply called a “Phasor” is a scaled line whose
length represents an AC quantity that has both magnitude (“peak
amplitude”) and direction (“phase”) which is “frozen” at some point in
time.
 A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one end which signifies
partly the maximum value of the vector quantity ( V or I ) and partly the
end of the vector that rotates.

 Generally, vectors are assumed to pivot at one end around a fixed zero
point known as the “point of origin” while the arrowed end representing
the quantity, freely rotates in an anti-clockwise direction at an angular
velocity, ( ω ) of one full revolution for every cycle. This anti-clockwise
rotation of the vector is considered to be a positive rotation. Likewise, a
clockwise rotation is considered to be a negative rotation.
 The projection of the phasor onto the vertical axis represents the
instantaneous value of the quantity it represents.

 Phasor apply only to sinusoidally varying quantities.

  A sinusoidal waveform can be produced by plotting vertical projection
of a phasor that rotates in the counterclockwise direction at a constant
angular velocity.

Phasor representation of an alternating quantity

Fig. shows OA when it has rotated through an angle θ from the position occupied
when the current was passing through its zero value. If AB and AC are drawn
perpendicular to the horizontal and vertical axes respectively :

OC = AB = OA sin θ = Im sin θ = i, namely the value of the current at that instant.

Hence the projection of OA on the vertical axis represents to scale the

instantaneous value of the current. Thus when θ = 90 ° the projection is OA itself;
when θ = 180°, the projection is zero and corresponds to the current passing
through zero from a positive to a negative value; when θ = 210° the phasor is in
position OA1 and the projection = OD = 0.5 OA1 = 0.5Im; and when θ = 360°, the
projection is again zero and corresponds to the current passing zero from a
negative to a positive value. It follows that OA rotates through one revolution or 2π
radians in one cycle of the current wave.

Angular Velocity

• Rate at which the generator coil rotates with respect to time, w (Greek letter
omega)

If f is the frequency in hertz, then OA rotates through f revolutions or 2π f

radians in 1 second. Hence the angular velocity of OA is 2π f radians/second
i.e. w =2π f radians/second.

If the time taken by OA to rotate through an angle θ radians be t seconds in the

figure above, then

θ = angular velocity x time = wt = 2π f t radians

Therefore the instantaneous value of the current can be expressed as

i = Im sin θ = Im sinwt = Im sin2π f t.

Phase Angle

The phase angle of a single wave is the angle from the zero point on the wave to

the value at the point from which time is reckoned. Thus i = Im sin(wt + q)

represents a sine wave of current with a phase angle q. The angle q is the phase

angle of the current with respect to the point where i = 0 as a reference. The figure

below illustrates this principle.

Voltages and Currents with Phase Shifts

• If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t = 0, it has a phase shift

• For a waveform shifted left

i = Im sin(wt + q)

• For a waveform shifted right

i = Im sin(wt - q)

Shifted Sine Waves

Phase Difference

• Phase difference is angular displacement between waveforms of same

frequency

• If angular displacement is 0°

– Waveforms are in phase

• If angular displacement is not 0o, they are out of phase by amount of

displacement

• May be determined by drawing two waves as phasors.

Phasor representations of alternating quantities differing in phase

The phase angle of a sine wave can be used to describe the relationship of one sine
wave to another by using the terms “Leading” and “Lagging” to indicate the
relationship between two sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency, plotted
onto the same reference axis.

The current waveform is in phase with the voltage waveform, as shown by the

graph and the corresponding phasor diagram.

The current waveform leads the voltage waveform by an angle π/2, as shown

by the graph and the corresponding phasor diagram. 

The current waveform lags the voltage waveform by an angle π/2, as shown by

the graph and the corresponding phasor diagram. 

• If v1 = 5 sin(100t) and v2 = 3 sin(100t - 30°), v1 leads v2 by 30°

Phasor Diagram of Sinusoidal(Alternating)Waveform

A diagram representing alternating current and alternating voltage (of same

frequency) as vectors (phasors) with the phase angle between them is called a
phasor diagram.

Five Rules for Drawing Phasor Diagrams

Rule 1. The length of the phasor is directly proportional to the amplitude of the
wave depicted.

Rule 2. In circuits which have combinations of L, C & R in SERIES

 it is customary to draw the phasor representing CURRENT horizontally, and
call this the REFERENCE phasor. This is because the current in a series circuit
is common to all the components.

Rule 3. In parallel circuits, where L, C and R are connected in parallel the phasor
representing the SUPPLY VOLTAGE is always drawn in the REFERENCE
direction. This is because in a parallel circuit it is the supply voltage that is

common to all components.

Rule 4. The direction of rotation of all phasors is considered to be

ANTICLOCKWISE.

Rule 5. In any one diagram, the same type of value (RMS, peak etc.) is used for
all phasors, not a mixture of values.
The phasor diagram is drawn corresponding to time zero ( t = 0 ) on the horizontal
axis. The length of the phasor is directly proportional to the amplitude of the wave
depicted.
In the example above the two waveforms are out-of-phase by 30o so one can say
that v2 lags v1 or v1 leads v2 by 30o.

Phasor Diagram Summary

 Phasors and Phasor Diagrams only apply to sinusoidal AC waveforms.

 A Phasor Diagram can be used to represent two or more stationary
sinusoidal quantities at any instant in time.
 Generally the reference phasor is drawn along the horizontal axis and at
that instant in time the other phasors are drawn. All phasors are drawn
referenced to the horizontal zero axis.
 Phasor diagrams can be drawn to represent more than two sinusoids. They
can be either voltage, current or some other alternating quantity but the
frequency of all of them must be the same.
 All phasors are drawn rotating in an anticlockwise direction. All the
phasors ahead of the reference phasor are said to be “leading” while all the
phasors behind the reference phasor are said to be “lagging”.
 Generally, the length of a phasor represents the R.M.S. value of the
sinusoidal quantity rather than its maximum value.
 Sinusoids of different frequencies cannot be represented on the same
phasor diagram due to the different speed of the vectors. At any instant in time
the phase angle between them will be different.
 Two or more vectors can be added or subtracted together and become a
single vector, called a Resultant Vector.
 The horizontal side of a vector is equal to the real or x vector. The vertical
side of a vector is equal to the imaginary or y vector. The hypotenuse of the
resultant right angled triangle is equivalent to the r vector.
 In a three-phase balanced system each individual phasor is displaced by
120o.

Find out the rms values of the following waveforms as

shown below:
 Figure 1.

2.

Figure 2

3.
 Figure 3

4.

Figure 4.

5.
 Figure 5.

Note: Lower-case letters are used to represent instantaneous value and

upper-case letters represent definite values such as maximum, average or
r.m.s. values. In alternating current circuits, capital V and I without any
subscript represent r.m.s. values.