ELE 3203: Communication Systems

Learning Outcome 1 part 1

Introduction, dB, Noise, Channel Capacity

12/4/22
Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module you will be expected to:

• Identify the components of an electronic communication system

using a typical block diagram.
• Convert signals from W to dB and dBm and vice versa
• Identify the sources of noise and the effects of noise on signals.
• Calculate signal to noise (S/N) ratio and noise figure (NF)
• Determine noise figure of amplifiers in cascade (Friis Equation)
• Describe the relationship between bandwidth, information content,
and channel capacity in a communication channel (Shannnon theory).
• Identify the types of media used in communication.
What is Telecommunication ?
Communication is the process of exchanging information between two or more parties.
The prefix “Tele” is derived from the Greek word “at a distance”.

Early forms of communications: Current Methods of communication:

1. Face to face
1. Face to face 2. Signals
2. Smoke 3. Written word (letters)
3. Horns
4. Light
4. Electrical innovations:
▪ Telegraph
▪ Telephone
▪ Radio
▪ Television
▪ Internet (computer)
What is Telecommunication ?
Communication took a great leap when Electricity was invented, and here are some of the major
Milestones in telecommunications:

• 1844 Morse patents the telegraph

• 1866 first transatlantic telegraph cable
• 1876 Bell invents the telephone
• 1887 Hertz discovers radio waves
• 1895 Marconi demonstrates wireless telegraphy
• 1901 Marconi makes first transatlantic radio transmission
Elements of Communication system

Note that this is a one way

communication system. How would
you modify it to be a two ways
system?
 Transmitter Tx: converts the information electrical signal into a signal with a format that is suitable for
transmission over a given medium.
 Channel (medium): is the medium by which electrical signals are conveyed from the transmitter to
the receiver e.g. free space, copper cables, waveguides, fiber optics.
 Receiver Rx: picks up the transmitted signal from the medium and converts it back to information.
 Noise: a random undesirable electric energy that enters the communication system via the channel and
interferes with the transmitted signal.
 Elements of Communication system

 Attenuation: or degradation of electrical signal, exists in all media (channels) . For wireless
transmission, it is proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver.
 Elements of Communication system

What happens to the one way

communication system if two
transceivers are used instead of the
transmitter and receiver?

Transceivers (Tx/Rx): A transceiver is a unit that incorporates both a transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx). It
sends and receives signals. Examples include:
• Telephones
• Fax machines
• Handheld CB radios
• Cell phones
• Computer modems
 Classifications of communication systems
Type of communication
• Simplex: Is a one way communication, information travels in one direction e.g. radio, TV, telemeter
• Half duplex: is a two way communication, but only one direction at a time (not simultaneously) e.g.
walkie talkie
• Duplex: Is a two way communication where the transmitter and the receiver are able to hear each
other simultaneously e.g. land line telephone, mobile telephone

Analog vs. Digital

Classified based on the type of information transmitted :
• Analog Signals: Continuously varying signals e.g. sine waves.
• Digital Signals :Binary digits that change between two levels are used to represent information
Baseband vs. Passband
• Baseband signals: Are the original information to be transmitted. Baseband signals are often sent
directly over the communication channel
• Passband: When baseband signals are not suitable for direct transmission, the baseband signals are
adapted or modulated first and transmitted e.g. AM, FM.
 Communications Applications
• Simplex • Duplex
• AM and FM broadcasting • Telephones
• Digital radio • Two-way radio
• TV broadcasting • Radar
• Sonar
• Digital television (DTV)
• Amateur radio
• Cable television • Citizens radio
• Facsimile • Family Radio service
• Wireless remote control • The Internet
• Paging services • Wide-area networks (WANs)
• Navigation and direction-finding services
• Metropolitan-area networks (MANs)
• Telemetry
• Local area networks (LANs)
• Radio astronomy
• Surveillance
• Music services
• Internet radio and video
Electromagnetic Spectrum

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwfJPc-rSXw&feature=youtu.be

More videos in the following list: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PMtC34pzKGc&list=PL09E558656CA5DF76&index=5

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Voice frequencies (VF) 300Hz 3kHz

Very low frequencies (VLF) 3KHz 30kHz
Low frequencies (LF) 30kHz 300KHz
Medium frequencies (MF) 300KHz 3MHz
High frequencies (HF) 3MHz 30MHz
Very high frequency (VHF) 30MHz 300MHz
Ultra high frequency (UHF) 300MHz 3GHz
Super high frequency (SHF) 3GHz 30GHz
Extremely high frequency (EHF) 30GHz 300GHz
Relationship between frequency and wavelength

time distance

Figure : Frequency and wavelength. (a) One cycle. (b) One wavelength.
Relationship between frequency and wavelength
• c = speed of light 3x108 m/sec
• λ = wavelength (meters)
• f = frequency (hertz)

 Example 1
What is the wavelength, If the frequency is 25MHz?
λ= 3x108 / 25x106 = 12 m How the units work?

 Example
What is the frequency in MHz if the Wavelength = 2.4m?

ans: f =125MHz
Bandwidth BW:
Is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal or the frequency range
over which the information is transmitted.
Bandwidth is calculated as the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a
continuous set of frequencies.
It is typically measured in hertz, and may sometimes refer to passband bandwidth.

BW = f – f
2 1

BW

f1 f2
Example 1: AM and FM spectrum and BW
Example 2: WiFi Spectrum and BW
Spectrum assignment and Regulation
• The frequency spectrum is a scarce national resource and is the property of the state.
• Government setup agencies to regulate the use of spectrums: Telecommunications and
Digital Government Regulatory Authority (TDRA) in the UAE
• Anyone may transmit, as long as they respect certain transmission power and other
limits: open spectrum bands such as the unlicensed ISM bands, and the somewhat more
regulated amateur radio frequency allocations.
• Often users use a "listen before talk" protocol (cognitive radio)
• Only the licensed user of that band may transmit: the licensing body may give the same
frequency to several users as a form of frequency reuse if they cannot interfere because
their coverage map areas never overlap.
• Two popular worldwide bodies
• USA : Federal communications commission (FCC)
• International : International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 The Decibel in Communications
• Decibel, is unit of measure (abbreviated dB) originally used to compare sound
intensities and subsequently electrical or electronic power outputs.
• The dB (decibel) is a relative unit of measurement commonly used in communications
for providing a reference for input and output levels such as power gain or loss.
• dB is a ratio unit used to compare one value to another e.g. output to input
• Signal and noise level associated with telecommunications systems are often expresses
in dB

Pout
G 
Pin
 Pout 
G( dB )  10 log10  
 Pin 
 Examples
Example 1: FM transmitter uses an amplifier with output power of 2.75 W and input power of
48mW calculate the relative power increase and the gain in dB?

Ans: 57.3, 17.6dB

Example 2: A communication filter attenuates a signal power from 2.75 W to 2 W, what is

the relative power decrease and the attenuation in dB?

Ans: 0.72, -1.3dB

Examples
Example 1: An amplifier has a gain of 17.6dB and if the
input power to the amplifier is 48mW, calculate the output
power.
Pout G( dB) Pout
G( dB)  10 log   log
Pin 10 Pin
G / 10 Pout
10 
Pin
Pout  10G /10  Pin
Pout  101.76  48mW  2.75W

Example 2: A filter has an attenuation of -1.3dB, if the measured output

signal is 2W, what is the input signal?
 The Decibel (dB) in Communications

• Different way of doing it !!

• Convert the signals first the power to dB:
• Then add/subtract them

P( dB )  10 log10 ( P( watts ) )
Pin( dB )  10 log Pin
Pout ( dB )  10 log Pout
G( dB )  Pout( dB)  Pin( dB )
Examples

Example 1: FM transmitter uses an amplifier with output power of 2.75 W and

input power of 48mW calculate the gain in dB?

Ans: 17.6dB

Example 2: A communication filter attenuates a signal power from 2.75 W to 2 W,

what is the attenuation in dB?

Ans: -1.3dB
 Making sense of the dB (intuitive way)
 An amplifier has an input power of 1 W,
 
1. What is the gain in dB if the output is 10 W (10times)?
Ans:10dB
2. If the output is increased to 100W (100 times), what is the gain in dB?
Ans: 20dB
3. If the output is increased to 1000W (1000times), what is the gain in dB?
Ans: 30dB

 An amplifier has an input power of 1 W,

 
1. If the output is increased to 2W (2 times) , what is the gain in dB?
Ans: 3dB
2. If the output is increased to 4W(4 times) , what is the gain in dB?
Ans: 6dB
Making sense of the dB (intuitive way)
• An increase of signal level by 10 times is equivalent to 10dB
• An increase of signal level by 100 times is equivalent to 20dB
• Doubling the ( 2 times) power is represented by 3dB
• Quadrupling ( 4 times) the power is represented by 6dB
• What about decreasing the power?

Can you do this example the intuitive way!

1W ??W ??W ??W

20dB -6dB 3dB

?dB ??dB
??dB ??dB
 The Decibel In Communications (dBm)

What is dBm?

When making dB measurements, a reference level is specified or implied to be 1

Watts. dB is also referred as dBW to indicate clearly that the reference is 1 Watts.

dBm uses 1 mW as reference level. Steps to convert from W to dBm:

1- Divide by 1mW
2- Take the log
P
dBm  10 log10
1mW
If the power P is expressed in mW, we have:

dBm  10 log10 ( P( mW ) )
 Examples
1mW
 What is 1 mW in dBm ? dBm  10 log10  0dBm
1mW
1W
 What is 1 W in dBm ? dBm  10 log10  30dBm
1mW

Convert from W to dBm:  26µW  76pW

Convert back from dBm to W  -45dBm  26dBm

 Noise

Noise is one of the factors that affects the information being delivered.  It can
create interference, alter the integrity of the signal and sometimes even degrade
the signal to an unrecognizable pattern. 

• Noise is any undesired voltages or currents that appear in the receiver output.
• Noise can come from a variety of sources, and can be external or internal. 
• Noise can be static or in burst (sudden appearance)
• Noise signals are usually very small in amplitude.
• Noise signals combine with desired signals.
• Receivers have high gain amplifiers required to amplify weak signals. Noise is
also amplified alongside desired signals.
• Noise ruins desired signals.
Classification of Noise - External and Internal

• External Noise:
• Man-made noise
Spark producing machines e.g. engine ignition systems, fluorescent lamps,
electric motors
Power supplies e.g. ripples in DC power supply, AC power line surges caused
by the switching on and off of equipment
• Atmospheric Noise
Naturally occurring disturbances in the earth atmosphere e.g. lightning
discharges
• Space noise
Noise that originates from the sun is termed as Solar Noise
 Classification of Noise - External and Internal
• Internal Noise: Is the noise generated within the
receiver. Most internal noise contribution comes from
the first stages of a receiver.
• Thermal noise (Internal Noise) is due to the
thermal interaction between free electrons and the
vibrating ions in a conductor, it causes the rate of arrival
of electrons to either end of a resistor to vary randomly
• This noise was first studied by Johnson in 1928 and is
also called Johnson Noise.
• Because this noise depends largely on temperature it is
also called Thermal Noise
• The frequency content of this noise spreads equally over
Pn  kTf
large range of frequencies, hence it is also called white
noise. k  Boltzman Constnat ( 1.38  10- 23 J/K)
T  resistor temperatur e in Kelvi n
Johnson was able to show that the power
of this thermal noise is: Δf  frequency bandwidth of the sy stem
Effect of bandwidth (BW) on the noise power:
Example: Given a system at room temperature and operating at 1kHz Bandwidth, what
is the amount of noise power in dBm?
 kT f 
Pn  kT f  ( Pn ) dBm  10  log  
 1mW 
1.38 1023  (273  27) 103
Pn  10  log( 3
)  143dBm
10
• If BW=1Hz, what would be Pn? -173 dBm
• If BW=1MHz, what would be Pn? -113 dBm

BW 1Hz 1kHz 1MHz

Pn -173 dBm -143 dBm -113 dBm

From the above, explain the consequence of using a wideband communication systems?
 Noise Voltage

• To determine the noise voltage generated by a resistor, consider the following

circuit diagram.

Since P = V2 / R and using

maximum power transfer the
R RL
noise voltage en arriving at the
load is en/2
Maximum power
en
V 2 en / 2 
transfer when R = RL 2
Pn  kTf  
R R
en  4kTfR
Where en is the rms noise voltage and R is the resistance
generating the noise. The instantaneous value of thermal
What en and R represent?
noise is not predictable but may be assumed as ten times the
rms value.
Example
Given a system at room temperature (27C) and operating at 100Hz bandwidth,
determine the amount of noise voltage assuming R = 50Ω?

Pn  kTf 
V

2
en / 2 
2

R R
en  4kTfR
Signal to Noise Ratio(S/N or SNR)

The most fundamental relationship in communication that relates signal

power to noise power, Signal to Noise Ratio, abbreviated SNR or S/N

• (S/N) is a relative measure of the desired signal power to the noise

power (S / N)

 S  Signal Power  Ps  S  Ps 

       10 log10  
 N  Noise Power  PN   N  dB  PN 
Example
The receiver in a given communication system produces 2 V signal at its output, if
the noise measured at the same point is equal to 0.1 V, determine the signal to
noise ratio if the signal and the noise are delivered to a 50 Ohm resistor?

V 2 22 4
 

S    0.08
R 50 50
Rx V 2 0.12 0.01
N    0.0002
R 50 50
 

S 0.08
  400
S = 2V N 0.0002
N = 0.1V S
 10 log 400  26dB
N dB
 Example
A receiver requires a S/N ratio of 10 dB. If the receiver receives 0.2 V signal at its
input, and the noise measured at the same point is equal to 0.1 V, determine the
signal to noise ratio if the signal and the noise are delivered to a 50 Ohm resistor?
Determine the signal quality at the receiver (is the signal good or bad)?

 
S 0.0008
 4
N 0.0002
S
Rx  10 log 4  6dB
N dB
 

S = 0.2V S S
received  required
N = 0.1V N dB N dB

Therefore the received signal quality is bad

 Noise Figure
• Is used to identify how much additional noise is added by a device, OR how noisy a device is.
• Signal to noise ratio always worsens from input to output due to entropy; as the S/N ratio at
output is less than S/N ratio at input, NR noise ratio (or noise factor) is always greater than unity.

  (S/N)at
How much noise
(S/N) at S / N i
the input the output NR 
is added from
this block   S / N o
 

Note that the ratio is Input over output

NR is the noise ratio is in linear scale

Noise figure is the noise factor, or noise ratio,  S / N i 

NF  10 Log10 NR  10 log10  
 S / N o 
expressed in decibels (logarithmic scale):
 Examples
A transistor amplifier has a measured S/N power of 10 at its input and 5 at its
output. Calculate the Noise Figure (NF) of the system?.

10 log (10/5) = 10 log 2 = 3 dB

A transistor amplifier has a measured S/N power of 15dB at its input and 5dB at its
output. Calculate the Noise Figure (NF) of the system?

NF = SNRindB - SNRoutdB = 15 – 5 = 10dB

Why don’t we write NFdB ?

 Noise in Cascaded Amplifiers
Friis Equation: The overall noise effect in cascaded amplifiers is calculated using Friis
Equation.
Friis shows that the first amplifier in a cascade has the most effect on the
overall noise in a system.

NF1, G1 NF2, G2 NFn-1, G n-1 NFn , Gn

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage n-1 Stage n

NR2  1 NRn  1
NRTotal  NR1   ....  NF  10 log( NRTotal )
PG1 PG1  PG 2  .....  PG ( n1)
 Example
A communication system uses a three stage amplifier. The first stage has a power
gain of 14dB and an NF 3 dB. The second and third stages are identical with power
gains of 20 dB and NF = 8.
• Calculate the overall gain of the system
• Calculate the Noise figure of the system.
 Information and Bandwidth

Shannon’s Law is a fundamental law used in telecommunications to compute

channel capacity given a certain bandwidth and noise level.
Channel Capacity is the maximum (upper bound) theoretical data transfer
rate over a transmission medium based on Bandwidth and Signal to Noise
ratio.
Shannon’s law is used to compute channel capacity is given by:
S
C  BW log 2 (1  ) bps (bits per sec ond)
N
C : channel capacity
S : Signal Power
N : Noise Power
BW : Bandwidth

Be careful: the logarithm’s base is 2 not 10 !!!

 Example
A communication system has a nominal 25 dB SNR and operates at 3100 Hz
bandwidth. Compute the channel capacity.

Convert 25 dB to linear

 25 dB = 316

C = 3100 Log2 (1 + 316) = 25,755 bps

 Factors affecting the channel capacity
S
C  BW log 2 (1  ) bps (bits per sec ond)
N
• What factors affect the channel capacity? Or
C : channel capacity
• How can you improve the channel capacity ? S : Signal Power
• to  C channel capacity, S/N  N : Noise Power
• to  C channel capacity, BW  BW : Bandwidth

• In conclusion, the two primary communication resources are the

bandwidth and the transmitted power. In a given communication
channel, one resource may be more valuable than the other, and
the communication scheme should be designed accordingly.
Noise Measurements : SINAD
When the effects of noise and distortion on an amplifier or receiver are of interest, a
specification called SINAD is used. Distortion introduced by a receiver is not random like
noise but its effect on the intelligibility in the output is similar. For this reason, many
radio receivers are rated using SINAD. This is especially true for FM receivers.

Where: S = signal power out,

N = noise power out,
D = distortion power out
When measuring SINAD, an RF signal modulated by a 400-Hz or 1-kHz audio signal is
usually applied to the receiver. The receiver output power is measured to give S+N+D.
Then a highly selective filter is used to eliminate the 400-Hz or 1-kHz audio output. This
leaves just the N + D output, which is measured. SINAD can then be calculated using
Equation
SINAD example
 Noise Diode Generator
Another noise measurement technique involves using a diode to generate a known amount of noise.
In this technique the output impedance of the diode noise generator circuit is matched into the
amplifier under test. In these types of measurements, the amplifier is commonly called the device
under test, or simply DUT. The procedure is first to measure the noise power output of the DUT when
the dc current to the noise diode is zero. The dc current is then increased until the DUT noise power
output is exactly doubled from the original value. The diode dc current is then used in the following
equation to determine the noise ratio of the DUT:

DUT = Device
NR = 20IdcR Under Test an
electronic part or
system that is
being tested
where R is the input impedance of the DUT and the temperature is 290 K (approximately room
temperature).
Ref.: “Semiconductor Noise Figure Considerations,” Application Note AN-421 from Motorola
Semiconductor Products, Inc. for a derivation of this surprisingly simple and useful relationship.
Tangential Noise Measurement Technique

Meters capable of accurately measuring the very low levels involved with noise
measurements tend to be expensive and of limited use with regard to other applications.
A dual-trace oscilloscope with high sensitivity is an exception to this limitation.
Unfortunately, a direct noise reading from the scope results in errors for two reasons:

1. Noise is of a highly random nature and is not sinusoidal. Since rms values are
required for noise calculations, the conversion from scope peak-to-peak values by
dividing by is not accurate.

2. Since the noise peaks are random, their visibility on the scope is influenced by
factors such as the scope’s intensity setting, the persistence of the CRT’s phosphor,
and the length of the observation.

Tangential Method
method of measuring the amplitude of noise on a signal using an oscilloscope display
Tangential Noise Measurement Technique
The two displays shown in Figure 7 show exactly the same noise signal at two different
intensity settings. The measurement can be erroneous by as much as 6 dB.
 Tangential Noise Measurement Technique Example

With the tangential method, the noise

signal is connected to both channels of a
dual-channel scope used in the
alternate-sweep mode.


The offset voltage is adjusted until the

traces just merge.


The noise signal is then removed.

The difference in the noise-free traces is
twice the rms noise voltage.

Scope settings are: horizontal = 500

ms/cm, vertical = 20 mV/cm. Example 1 Example 2
End of LO1 Part 1
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