2.

1 - Structure and properties of metals

1.) Metal: a solid material which is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, with good electrical and thermal conductivity
(e.g. iron, gold, silver, and aluminium, and alloys such as steel).

2.) Solid: A solid is a state of matter, characterized by a definite volume and a definite shape (i.e. it resists deformation). Within a solid,
atoms/molecules are relatively close together (bond force), or "rigid“

3.)Bond force: It is the forces of attraction and repulsion between opposite electrical charges (protons and electrons)

4.) Bond types:

- Ionic bonding
* electrovalent bond
* bonded together by the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, ie transistion of electron from the shell of one
atom to other atom shell
* between metals and non metals

- Atomic bonding
* covalent or electron pair bond
* bonded by common electrons
* between the non metals

- Metallic bonding
* It arises from the electrostatic attractive force between conduction electrons (in the form of an electron cloud of delocalized
electrons) and positively charged metal ions. It may be described as the sharing of free electrons among a lattice of positively charged
ions (cations)
* the split off or free electrons belongs to the entire union of atoms
* between metal and alloys
5.) Crystal:
- It is a body whose atoms and molecules are organised regularly in crystal lattice
- It is the characteristics of the solid
- it is an homogeneous , 3 dimensional and periodic discontinuity of atomic arrangement

6.) Lattice:
- a regular repeated three-dimensional arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a metal or other crystalline solid
- if it is in the crystal it is called crystal lattice
- if it is in the space its called space lattice

7.) Lattice parameter:

- The lattice constant, or lattice parameter, refers to the physical dimension of unit cells in a crystal lattice. Lattices in three
dimensions generally have three lattice constants, referred to as a, b, and c and the angle between the lattice vectors α, β, γ

8.) Unit or Elementary cell:

- the smallest group of atoms which has the overall symmetry of a crystal, and from which the entire lattice can be built up
by repetition in three dimensions.

9.) Phase:
- It is a material or mixture of several material with homogeneous properties, which has definite crystal structure
- the are where the properties change dramatically are designated phase boundaries (eg; ferrite, cementite)
- the microstructure components do not have to be homogeneous in terms of their crystal structure or chemical
composition (eg; pearlite, ledeburite)
10.) Types of crystal lattice structures:
- As per BRAVAIS rule there can be max 14 possibilities crystal structures, but most of the
metal exhibits the following which is were we are most interested
* Simple cubic - SC , Body centered cubic - BCC, Face centered cubic - FCC
* Hexagonal closely packed - HCP
* Atomic per unit cell and coordination number
- SC = 8 * 1/8 = 1,
- BCC = {1 + (8 * (1/8))} = 2
- FCC = { (6 * 1/2) + (8 * (1/8))} = 4
- HCP = {(12 * 1/6) + (2 * 1/2) + (3 * 1/3)} = 6

- Atomic packing factor:atomic packing factor (APF),

packing efficiency or packing fraction is the fraction of
volume in a crystal structure that is occupied by
constituent particles. It is dimensionless and always less
than unity
SC = 0.52, BCC = 0.68, FCC = 0.74, HCP = 0.74
- Cordination number: number of atom bonded directly to
the central atom in a space lattice
SC = 6, BCC = 8, FCC = 12, HCP = 12
11.) Crystal structure imperfections:
- A Real crystal is understood to be the totally of deviations or imperfections in the
structural order of atomic arrangements compared to a ideal crystal which is assumed
to have no imperfection and 100 to 1000 time stronger than the real crystal is

12.) Classification of imperfection:

- Dependending on the geometric structure of the ideal crystal these deviations are
classified as
Zero dimensional (point defect or vaccancy)
* called "Point defect",
* Vaccancies are those place in the crystal lattice that are not accupied by the atoms
* formed by thermodynamically (temperature dependant), impurte or alloyed ra
material. Eg Vaccancy (inherent disorder), interstitial and substitutional atom
 1 dimensional (edge or screw dislocation)
* formed by mechanical load, solidification, recrystalization
* Edge dislocation and screw dislocation
* Dislocations are line like lattice structure imperfection
* occurs as early as solidification with density of 107/cm2
* due to fast cooling increses the density increases to 108/cm2
* plastic deformation increases it to 1012/cm2
* 2 important parameters are: Burger's vector, Dislocation line
* Burger's vector is the slip step of 1 inter atomic spacing
* dislocation movement is called Slip
* Burger's vector is parallel to slip direction and it indicated dislocation
direction
* Dislocation line is perpendicular to slip direction
* plastic deformation is the resultant of dislocation
* when dislocation found obstacles then it need more shear force to
continue the dislocation which is the macroscopic result to increase of yield
strength
* both burger's vector or slip direction and dislocation line lies on the slip
plane or dislocation plane
2 dimensional: Area defect (grain boundary, phase boundary,stacking faults)
* Typical flat lattice structure imperfections are grain boundary
* formed by mechanical load, solidification, recrystalization
* grain boundaries are differentiated according to how they are created
* if the grain orientation is small it is called small angle grain boundaries which is
comprised of regularly arranged dislocation
* if the grain orientation is larger it is called larger angle grain boundaries
* twin grain boundaries are another type of lattice defect
* the grain boundaries differences in orientation between neighbouring lattice parts are
characterised by the fact that the atoms on both sides of a denied lattice plane are
completly symmetric
* Since the neighbouring crystal parts are identical, the mirror plane is called the twinning
boundary or twin boundary

3 dimensional: volume defects (pores, inclusions,precipitates

and cracks)
* formed in manufacturing, production process
* pores are cavities inside the metal which are filled with gas or
liquid
* inclusions are solid phase within the crystal
* precipitates develop out of the crystal as foriegn phase
(intermetallic)
13.) Diffusion:
- it is the physical process that leads to an even distribution of particles and thus to the complete blending of 2 or more
substance
* a necessary pre - requiste of diffusion in crystalline solid is the presence of imperfection in the lattice structure
* only through the lattice structure imperfections can the transportation of atoms or ions can take place as a condition of
material transfer
* self diffusion is the transportation of atoms, cherged particles in pure metals
* foreign diffusion is in solid solutions that leads to change in the composistion towards their thermodynamically equibirium
(high to low concentration)
* diffusion depends on the concentration gradients, atomic type and the temperature
* transportation process runs according to the vaccancies or subdtitutional mechanism
* diffusionability of the atoms is very much temperature dependant
* vaccancies increase with increase in temperature
* Interstitial atoms like N,C,H do not require vaccancies for diffusion, they move from one interstitial site to another with
only minor distortion of lattice
* so interlattice diffusion progresses faster the vacancy
diffusion

* rate of diffusion can also influenced by crystal structure, consequently diffusion coeffiecients of Carbon atom is high about
100 times in α-iron than γ-Fe (but not in solubility)
* Volume diffusion is tha the transfer of atom happens at the interior of the grain
* Grain boundary diffusion is that the ftransfer of atom along the grain boundary
* grain boundary diffusion is faster at low and middle temperatures, since more grain boundaries available
* volume diffusion is faster at high temperatures since only small propotion of GB compared to total volume
14.) Strain hardening or work hardening:
* capability of crystalline material to under plastic deformation is based on dislocations
* dislocation density increases predominantly by cold deforming
* also incresed by accelerated cooling
* as dislocation number rises they hinder each other and non sliding obstacles were partly
developed by the inresecting dislocation
* Thus results in strong lattice distortion and strenghtening of material
* so hardness, Y.S, tensile strength is increased and impact energy, fracture elongation and
area reduction decreased
* dislocation can influence preciptation behaviour of foriegn atom in the basic matrix
* so a stress fiels is create around the dislocation which is occupied by the atoms, to
remove the disloation from this cloud of foriegn atom (Cotrell atmosphere) slightly higher
stress needed for further dislocation movement
* cold deformation increases the internal energy and thus to free enthalpy due to
introducing lattice imperfection.
* with a corresponding heat supply these free enthalpy can be reduce by rearranging and
reduce lattice defect through recrystallisation and recovery annealing
Enthalpy:It is a measurement of energy in a thermodynamic
system. It is the thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the
total heat content of a system. It is equal to the internal energy
of the system plus the product of pressure and volume
15.) Plastic deformation:
* mainly takes place through the gliding of atom layer along certain crystallogrphic planes
and directions under the influence of shear stress
* this process leads to a permanent deformation called plastic deformation
* the crystallographic plane and direction where the sliding occurs is known as sliding plane
and sliding direction
* generally planes with the most dense occupation of atoms serve as sliding plane or
directions since here the critical shear stress is very low
* the pre requisite for sliding under tensile load is that sufficiently high shear stress to be
present in the sliding plane
* FCC has 12 sliding planes with octahedral ares so such metal with this structure exhibit
good ductility
* HCP has only 3 sliding plane so it is very hard and less ductile
* BCC has 48 sliding plane yet not effective as FCC but not bad as HCP in ductility
* sliding can be completely impeded when the most densily occupied sliding planes are
blocked then no sufficient shear stress is achieved and sufficient tensile is achieved for
cleavage fracture even in FCC structure
* HCP = moderate toughness
BCC = average toughness
FCC = good toughness
16.) Elastic deformation:
* when a load is applied the interatomic distance will become
larger but no seperation and it will restore its equillibirium
position once the load is removed (ie) material will deform but
not permenant deformation will occur once the load was
removed.

17.) Age hardening:

* Aging is understood to be time, temperature, deformation - dependant property
change in the material
* 3 types of aging are natural, thermal and strain or artificial aging
* Natural aging: if the proerty change occurs after a cold work due to natural
ambience temperature resulting the deformation for a period of time is called
natural aging, here no external processes used like heating
* Thermal aging: If the property of the material is cahnged thermodynamical heating
and cooling it is called as thermal aging. Eg quenching, annealing, normalizing
Strain aging: If the material property changed with some cold work and with heating
relatively at low temperature <200 ̊C depending on the material.
* It is due to behaviour of interstitial atoms occupying the dislocation area and causing a
stress field around it which increases the required strenght to continue the slip to occur and
it is explained as yield point phenomenon
* Nitrogen plays a more important role in the strain-aging of iron that carbon because it has
a higher solubility and diffusion coefficient and produces less complete precipitation during
slow cooling.
* It is important to eliminate strain aging in deep drawing steels because the reappearance
of yield point can lead to difficulties with surface markings or stretcher strains due to
localized heterogenous deformation.
* Plain carbon steels heated in 200 ̊C to 300 ̊C shows a decreased tensile ductility and
notched impact-resistance and a minimum strain rate sensitivity and maximum strain aging
rate due to discontinuous yielding. This region is known as blue brittleness. This is just an
accelerated strain aging. Hence plain carbon steels are not cold worked in this temperature
range.
* Remedies
Lower the free amount of carbon and nitrogen by adding strong carbide and nitride formers
(Al, V, Ti, Cb, B)
Plain carbon steel strained plastically through the yield-point elongation to a particular strain X (region A). If it is unloaded
and reloaded again without any appreciable delay or any heat treatment yield point doesn't occur since the dislocations
have been torn away from the atmosphere of carbon and nitrogen atoms (region B). if it is unloaded and reloaded after
aging for several days at room temperature or several hours at an aging temperature like 130 ̊C then yield point reappears
and moreover, the yield-point will be increased (region C). This is due to the diffusion of C and N atoms to the dislocations
during the aging to form new solute atmospheres anchoring the dislocations.
18.) Recrystallization, Recovery and Grain growth (Stages of Annealing)
- The treatment to restore the ductility or electrical conductivity with a simultaneous
decrease in hardness and strength is Annealing (or Recrystallization annealing)
- It is heating cold worked metal to a temperature above recrystallization temperature,
holding there for some time and then slow cooling.
- The process of Annealing can be divided into three fairly distinct stages (1) Recovery (2)
Recrystallization (3) Grain growth.
- There is no change in composition or crystal structure during annealing.
- The driving force for recovery and recrystallization is the stored cold-worked energy,
whereas for grain growth is the energy stored in grain boundaries.

Recovery:
- It is restoration of the material properties (magnetic and electric) of the cold worked metal
without of any observable change in microstructure
- it is characterised by the healing of zero dimensional lattice structure imperfections
completely and rearranging the dislocations
- it occurs at temperatures lower than the recrystallization
- Polygonization one of the recovery processes which leads to rearrangement of the
dislocations, with a resultant lowering of the lattice strain energy
- that is forming small angle grain boundaries frequrntly forms polygons
Recrystallization:
- The process of forming new crystal nuclei and their growth is called recrystallization (primary
and secondary crystallization)
- disloactions are the predominant factors for nuclei formations
- so critical deformation grade of material is necessary for recrystallization below which no
recrystallization occurs (ie) a substanbtial amount of cold work in need to for recrystallization
of a material
- higher degree of deformation less recrystallization temperature or vice versa
- recrystallization temperature also dereases with increase in purity level of material
- the grain size of the recrystallized structure depends on the number of nuclei and rate of
growth
- the grain size and rate of growth is influenced by
* amount of deformation
* temperature
* Due to solid inclusion from impurities or other alloying
* time
elements which segregate at grain boundaries retards the
* initial grain size
recrystallization process by pinning effect since they form
* chemical composition
between the grain boundaries and reduce the grain boundary
* method of deformation
area and decreases the rate of recrystallization
* the forming of crystals due to impurities or alloying elements
are called secondary recrystallization
Grain growth:
- It is uniform increase in the average grain size following recrystallization
- The grain size distribution does not change during normal grain growth.
- During abnormal grain growth called secondary recrystallization because the
phenomenon shows kinetics similar to recrystallization, the grain size distribution may
radically change i.e. some very large grains present along with the fine grains
- The driving force for abnormal growth is decrease in surface energy. Solute drag and
pinning action of second phase particles retard movement of a migrating boundary
during grain growth as well.
- it occurs at very high temperature
 * if the angle is small it assumed to be finer and if
2.2 - PHASE DIAGRAMS AND ALLOY more it is coarse
* when the grain boundaries is small then it means
1.) Phase transformation (grain formation): as more fine grain and no. of grains is more
* when the grain boundaries is large then it is
- The driving force for phase transformation arises if the free energy of parent phase means coarse grain and less grains
becomes higher than that of product phase through a change in temperature or pressure * material with fine grains are good in ductility,
impact and yield strength, since they have more slip
- Below melting point, liquid can spantaneously transform to the solid. but the planes and good for low temperature application
transformation can’t take place all at once. * materials with coarse grains are good for elevated
temperature application but low in
- The transformation can be divided into two steps that occur sequentially. ductility,Y.S,impact properties
* Nucleation: The formation of tiny particles (nuclei) that are stable to further * Homogenous nucleation
The probability of nucleation remains constant
fluctuations and will not dissolve. throughout the volume of the parent phase. i.e.
* Growth: The increase in the size of these stable nuclei particles. solid begins to nucleate throughout the bulk of the
liquid without preference of any point.
- when the cooling commences the as nuclei of high solidification temperature material A grater amount of supercooling is needed for
forms first and subsequently the atoms near the nuclei combined together through homogenous nucleation to occur. Homogeneous
nucleation is a difficult process and almost never
surface energy and formed as grain occurs in industry. In practice, nucleation occurs at
- at the same time lot nuclei starts to from as grain simultaneously as temperature drops preferred sites. Heterogeneous nucleation is a much
easier process.
which is driving force for the atoms to be in equillibirium * Heterogenous nucleation
- so the nucleation rate is increased and so the grain formed impinges with neighbouring The probability of nucleation occuring at certain
preferred sites in the liquid is much more than that
grains which creats the grain boundary at other sites i.e. solid nucleates preferentially at
- inside the atoms are arranged in the lattice structure in an orderly manner and definite certain sites in the liquid phase. The preferred sites
are the walls of container (in the case of liquid),
orientation inclusions, grain boundaries, stacking faults and
- orientation of the grain depends on the orientation of the nuclei dislocations (incase of solids)
* so nuclei attracts the atoms and forms lattices
* each grain has its own orientation which may same as the neighbour or may not be structure and these latices combinely with defined
* angle between the orientation of one grain to other grain is called grain boundary angle boundary called grain and each grains are called a
crystal
2.) Pure metal: pure metal is characterised by properties like melting point, physical, chemical and
mechanical properties
3.) microstructure constituents do not have to be homogenous in terms of their crystal
structure or chemical composition. They can consist therefore of several phases
4.) Depending on the number of phases and microstructure constituents, alloys are categorised as
homogeneous (single-phase) and heterogeneous (polyphase) alloys.

5.) Solid solution: is a solid-state solution of one or more solutes in a solvent. Such a
mixture is considered a solution rather than a compound when the crystal structure of the
solvent remains unchanged by addition of the solutes, and when the mixture remains in a
single homogeneous phase.
6.) Types of Solid solutions:
– interstitial solid solutions
– substitutional solid solutions
7.) Interstitial solid solutions:
In an interstitial solid solution, the second atom type dissolved in the space lattice is
embedded in the
gaps between the atoms of the basic crystal
8.)
Type of Steels

ISO 15608 Primary chemical composition (%max) and

Sl.no. Material Type Group no. Yield Strength(N/mm2 ) Weldability Issues Counter Measures Remarks

Main * Cold cracking * Use of Low hydrogen * Ferritic - pearlitic micro

alloying C Mn Si P S Y.S (min) * Martensite formation elecrodes or flux structure
elements * Brittle fracture ( in age * Adequate preheat depends * Good formability
hardening) on the thickness and CEV * better weldability
0.25 1.7 0.6 0.045 0.045 275 * loss of strength due to * Use GMAW (13) if possible * low brittle failure
multiple heat treatment * Adequate PWHT susceptability
and welding process * Proper cleaning of base ( within required service
* Lamellar tearing metal and joints prepared temp and age hardening
* Use killed steels if possible condition)
* Use material with applicable * Heat treatment condition
impurity level and cycles should be
* Avoid welding on cold considered such that it should
worked area not affect the strength and
Structural * STRA material to be used for impact property severly
1 unalloyed steels avoiding lamellar tear * Steel sub group
1 * Proper joint design to be - 1.1: ≤ 275 Mpa
used - 1.2: 275 to 360 Mpa
* Use surfacing to prevent - 1.3: >360 Mpa
lamellar tear - 1.4: with improved corrosion
resistance
* Cr: 1.25% max
* Cu: 0.55% max
* P: 0.15% max
 ISO 15608 Primary chemical composition (%max)
Sl.no. Material Type Weldability Issues Counter Measures Remarks
Group no. and Yield Strength(N/mm2 )
Main alloying * Hydrogen induced * Use TMCP steels to avoid lamellar * High strength
elements C Mn Si P S Y.S (min) cracking tearing due to their high purity to weight ratio
* Martensite * Use of Low hydrogen elecrodes or * Increasing the yield & tensile
0.25 1.7 0.6 0.045 0.045 360
* Solidification cracking flux strength
* Reheat cracking (RHC) * Adequate preheat depends on the * Increasing the toughness
* Lamellar tearing thickness and CEV * Decrease crack sensitivity
* Formation of local brittle * Use GMAW (13) if possible * Higher allowable
zone * For t8/5 condition use High heat input stresses
* QT fine-grain structural process with fast travel speed or low H.I * Reduced material consumption
steels are suitable for process. (141 - TIG, 51 - EBW, 52 - LBW) * Reduced handling and
welding only to a limited * Adequate PWHT fabrication cost
extent * Proper cleaning of base metal and Higher allowable
or are not suitable for joints prepared stresses
welding. * Use killed steels if possible * These are fully killed steels
* Use material with applicable impurity * BAUSCHINGER effect
level * Micro alloying elements: (< 2%)
* Avoid welding on QT steels Al, Nb, V, Ti
* STRA material to be used for avoiding * 1.3 - Normalised (N) fine grain
High strength or lamellar tear steel: >360 Mpa
High strength low * Proper joint design to be used * 2.1 - TMCP: 360 to 460 Mpa
2
alloy steels * Use surfacing to prevent lamellar tear * 2.2 - TMCP: > 460 Mpa
(Fine grain steels) 1.3, 2 & 3
* for RHC: strictly maintain composition * 3.1 - QT: 360 to 690 Mpa
limits of base material, lower impurity * 3.2 - QT: > 690 Mpa
level, use low strength weld metal, * 3.3 - PH: > 690 Mpa
peening each layer of weld, grind weld * TMCP has almost no pearlite,
toes, intermediate PWHT hence its known as pearlite free
* For martensite: select low carbon fine grain steels
material, High H.I process, Sufficient * hot deformation for TMCP steels
preheat to increase the cooling rate, at temperatures above the
low strength filler material recrystallisation temperature
TR is, in principle, not permitted.
 1.) Dual phase steels (DP):
- low carbon sheet annealed in the inter-critical zone of ironcarbon diagran and then cooled rapidly to convert
austenite to martensite
- it has ferritic matrix containing martensite second phase in the form of islands
- Second phase has ferrote plus martensite islands, where ferrite is continuous, giving steels excellent ductility
- DP are characterised by:
* The absence of discontinuous Y.P
* A low ration of Y.S to U.T.S
* A high strain hardening rate
* A high tensile strength
* A large uniform elongation
* good fatigue resistance
- Typical mechanical properties of DP600 steels
* Y.S = 350 Mpa
High strength or * T.S = 600 Mpa
High strength low * Elongation = 25%
alloy steels - Carbon enables formation of martensite
Advanced High
3 (Fine grain strength steels - Mn, Cr, Mo, V, & Ni also increases hardenability
steels): Steels for - Typical chemical composistion of simplest Dp steel
Automotive * 0.2C, 1.5Mn, 0.5Cr, 0.4Mo
industries - Heted to max 790 ̊C and held for several minutes to allow small region of
austenite to form ferrite and quenched to form martensite
from residual austenite
- Advantages
* high strngth to weight ratio
* excellent formability
* all welding process are applicapble especially modern processes
 Transformation - induced Plasticity steels (TRIP)
- Forming process:
* consist of an intercritical annealing
and a subsequent isothermal annealing in the bainitic
transformation region.
* The purpose for the heat is to stabilise
the austenite by increasing its carbon concentration
* The microstructure
after heat-treatment consists of ferrite, bainite, retained austenite
and sometimes, martensite.
- The main alloying element is carbon, which determines the
amount of intercritical austenite and leads to the retention of
the austenite in the TRIP steels
- Manganese is used for hardenability
High strength or and strength. It slows down the pearlite formation
High strength low and increases the strength of the material by solid solution
alloy steels hardening
4 (Fine grain Advanced High
strength steels - Si, Al, P (mostly Al) helps to supress carbide formation
steels): Steels for - These retained austenite islands tend to transform to martensite
Automotive under a small strain.
industries - 0.6C%, 1.8Mn%
- Mechanical properties (TRIP660): UTS > 600 Mpa, Y.P> 400, %E - 33%
- Advantages
* possible to achieve greater elongations and lending these steels their excellent
combination of strength and ductility
- arc,resistance and beam welding process can be used
- Cold cracking problem
 Twinning-Induced Plasticity steel:
- the predominant mechanism is twinning without any phase transformation.
- TWIP steels show moderate strengths compared to TWIP but exhibit very high ductility
- phase transformation or twinning is related to stacking fault energy (SFE) and Al addition
increases SFE of austenite,
whereas Si decreases SFE
- twinning occurs when SFE is in the range of 20 - 40 mJ m-2
- Whereas for SFE > 40 mJ m-2, twinning is suppressed and the deformation is by
dislocation slip
High strength - Chemical composition
or High * 1C %, 20Mn%, 3Si%, 3Al%
strength low - Mechanical properties
alloy steels
Advanced High * Y.S - 200 to 300 Mpa
5 (Fine grain strength steels * UTS - 1000 to 1100 Mpa
steels): Steels * % elongation - 60 to 95 %
for - Advantages
Automotive - High strength to weigth ratio
industries - High strain hardening rate (103/s)
- High UTS
- Suitable for cryogenic application (-150 ̊ C)
- arc,resistance and beam welding process can be used
- Cold cracking problem
Sl.no. Material ISO 15608 Primary chemical composition Weldability Issues Counter Measures Remarks
Type Group no. (%max) and Yield Strength(N/mm2 )
Main alloying Temp * Hydrogen induced * Use of Low hydrogen elecrodes or * main alloying elements are Cr,
C Cr Mo V Ni
elements max cracking flux Mo, V, Ni to improve their heat-
Group 4 (Ferritic * Martensite formation/high * Adequate preheat depends on the resistancy
- hardenable under normal thickness and CEV * Creep: It is the tendency of a
pearlitic/bainitic 0.25 0.7 0.7 0.1 1.5 500 ̊C cooling * Adequate PWHT solid material to deform
) * Lamellar tearing * Proper cleaning of base metal and permanently at a high temperature
Group 5 (bainitic * Solidification cracking joints prepared under the influence of with or
0.25 10 1.2 - - 550 ̊C * Reheat cracking (RHC) * Use killed steels if possible without mechanical stress or load
-martensitic)
* Temper embrittlement * Use material with applicable in perod of time
Group 6 0.25 12.5 1.2 0.35 - 650 ̊C # 250 – 350 C : Formation impurity level * Creep is undertood as a time-
(Martensitic) of cementite films along * STRA material to be used for dependent
martensite boundaries avoiding lamellar tear deformation under a constant
# 350 – 600 C : Segregation * Proper joint design to be used load, preferably at elevated
of impurity elements P, Sb, * for RHC & Temper embrittlement: temperatures.
Sn and As to prior-γ grain strictly maintain composition limits * Creep rupture: it is a strength at
boundaries,especially if Mn of base material, lower impurity a specific temperature is the stress
Creep & Si are relatively high level, use Vanadium as alloy in Cr- which leads to fracture
6 resistant * Lamellar tearing Mo steel after a certain time
steels * Creep rupture * The creep limit: It is defined as
* Graphitization the stress that leads to a
* Type 4 cracking specific plastic elongation at a
Here max value in the main group was given , for actual specific temperature
vaues of sub groups pls refer ISO 15608 * Transition
temperature: The temperature
above which the vast majority of
scientific material mechanisms are
running thermically activated
Tü = 0.3 Ts
* Step cooling test: Verification of
tempering embrittlement in heat-
resistant Cr-Mo steels can be
simulated in laboratory
using Step cooling test
 ISO
Primary chemical composition (%max) and Yield
Sl.no. Material Type 15608
Weldability Issues Counter Measures Remarks
Group
no. Strength(N/mm2 )
Main alloying * Strain age * Use of Low hydrogen * Cryogenic service
elements Temperat cracking elecrodes or flux materials:
C Ni Mn
ure ̊C * Solidification * Adequate preheat - C-Mn
cracking depends on the - Micro alloyed steels
9.1 0.18 3 1.7 < -100 * Liquation thickness and CEV - Ni conntaining low
cracking or micr * Adequate PWHT alloy steels
fissuring * Proper cleaning of - Austenetic stainless
(-100 to - * HAZ softening base metal and joints steels
9.2 0.18 3 to 8 1.7
150) (reduction in notch prepared * All arc welding
toughness) * Use killed steels if process can be used
8 to * highly possible
9.3 0.18 1.7 > -150 susceptible to * Use material with
10
magnetism applicable impurity level
* Group no. 9 * do not use magnetic
7 Cryogenic * impurities:
steels material for handling
P < 0.025 * use AC reverse current
S < 0.015 if exceeded
demagnetization limit
Sl.no. Material Type
ISO 15608 Primary chemical composition (%max) and Yield Weldability Issues Counter Measures Remarks
Group no.
Strength(N/mm2 )
Main alloying * Martensite * Use hydrogenless * All ferritic steels are
elements Yield formation welding process (141 - TIG ferromagnetic
C Cr Mo
Strength * Cold cracking with Argon for shielding * Min 12% Cr to be
* Increase of Cr and and purging) alloyed in steel to be
0.08 to 12 Mo amplifies σ and χ * use low carbon filler or Ni termed as stainless steel
Half Ferritic 0.20 to - 210 to 480
17 phase formation with base filler * Poor ductility
incorrect heat * for σ phase use less * Yield point can be
16
Ferritic 0.02 to to - 180 to 300 treatment ferrite filler, solution increased for
0.10 * 475°C treatment, grain half ferrites by quenching
26 embrittlement refinement by weld pool and
at chromium ≥ 17% agigtating tempering
24 and/or * Temper below 475 ̊C or * Ferrites and
0.002
Super ferritic to 4.5 400 to 450 molybdenum ≥ 2% above “superferrites” can
to 0.03 30
* Sensitization: 475 ̊C and rapidly cool be neither hardened nor
* Group no. 7: Sub group no. 7.1 Formation of down quenched and tempered,
Stainless * other alloying elements: Nb, Ti, Al chromium carbides * For sensitization use low are
8 steel: and nitrides, if not carbon filler, stabilized filler transformationless
Ferritic stabilised with material, solution * Transition temperature
titanium, niobium, treatment of the
risk of attack impact energy in ferritic
by intergranular steels is
corrosion greater than room
* Grain coarsening temperature
due to ferritic (“superferrites” ~ -50°C)
microstructure * good against pitting
* loss of toughness corrosion
* Reheat cracking
 Primary chemical composition
Sl.no. Material Type ISO 15608
Weldability Issues Counter Measures Remarks
Group no.
(%max) and Yield Strength(N/mm2 )
Main alloying * Normally not * Use Nickel filler metals * All martensitic steels are
elements recommended for welding * Maintain high preheat temp., ferromagnetic (reason:
Yield
C Cr Mo Ni Strength * Risk of forming cold interpass control (Different martensite is tetragonally or
cracks (hardening cracks practices: Preheat > Ms cubically distorted ferrite, ferrite
and hydrogen-induced temp.,Preheat between Ms & Mf) is ferromagnetic)
cracking) * Control of cooling rate * Depending on carbon content
Martensitic ≥ 0.14 12 to - - 600 *Risk of the hydrogen * Postweld tempering essential and additional alloying
18 embrittlement (at ~ 750 ̊C) potential,
* Tend to embrittle due to the physical properties of these
chromium carbide steels are closer to those of
Soft Martensitic ≥ 0.14 1217to 0.3 to 500 to
2.5 1 to 6.5 800
formation because of stainless ferritic steels or those
relatively high chromium of unalloyed steels
and carbon * All martensitic steels are
content hardenable and
Super Martensitic * Stress corrosion cracking quenchable/temperable
(Precipitation ≥ 0.14 1318to 1.3 6 500 to
hardenable) 1000 (reason:
alloying with carbon or nickel,
Stainless steel: * Group no. 7: therefore transformable)
9 Martensitic - Sub group no. 7.2 (Martensitic) * Soft Martensitic are relatively
- Sub group no. 7.3 (Precipitation hardenable) ductile and have sufficient
* Martensitic steels are ferromagnetic toughness
properties
* Martensitic steels do not have
a
tendency for 475°
embrittlement
* Martensitic steels do not have
a
tendency for σ and χ phase
embrittlement
* Soft-martensitic and
precipitation-hardenable steels
are formable before hardening
 Primary chemical composition
Sl.no. Material Type
ISO 15608
Group no. (%max) and Yield Weldability Issues Counter Measures Remarks
Strength(N/mm2 )
Main alloying * Sensitization: Formation * Use Nickel filler metals * Austenitic steels are non-
elements of chromium carbides and * Use material with applicable magnetic
C Cr Ni Mn N Mo nitrides, if not stabilised impurity level (reason: austenitic microstructure)
with titanium, niobium, risk * For sensitization use low carbon * Low temperature toughness
of attack filler, stabilized filler material, down
Meta stable 17 to 5.5 to * Full-austenitic steels are solution treatment to below - 200°C
< 0.1 7 to 12 0.15 2 to 5 sometimes very vulnerable * Use filler with <5% of ferrite * Have significantly greater thermal
Austenite 19 10.5
to hot cracks * Use recommended ferrite number expansion with lower thermal
* Thermal expansion fillers. conductivity than do ferritic steels
coefficient is approx. 50% * What is Ferrite number: * Strength values significantly
18 to 13 to above the ferrites - Ferrite Number is an arbitrary below
Austenite < 0.1 - - 2 to 5
19 15 * FN has been adopted as a standardized value designating the those of martensitic steels
relative measure for ferrite content of an austenitic * Solid solution hardening by e.g.
quantifying ferritic content stainless steel weld metal. It should nitrogen, copper and/or
19 to 24 to 0.15 to using standardized magnetic be used in place of percent ferrite or manganese
Superaustenites < 0.1 - 5 to 7 techniques. volume percent ferrite on a direct * Work hardening (e.g. by cold
25 35 0.25
- FN approximates the replacement basis. forming)
* Group no. 8: "volume percent ferrite" at -The FN approach was developed in * Hardening by precipitations (e.g.
Stainless - 8.1: Austenite, Y.S - 175 to 230 levels below 8 FN; above order to reduce the large variation carbides or nitrides)
10 steel: - 8.2: Superaustenites, Y.S - 250 to 400 (Nitrogen alloyed), this level, deviation occurs. in ferrite levels determined on a * Pronounced gain growth in
Austenetic Y.S - 1100 (work hardened) - instruments available for given specimen when measured austenitic
- 8.3: Meta stable Austenite (< 3 Ferrite Number) determining the ferrite using different techniques in steels is not to be expected
* Full austenites do not have a tendency content of welds,Magne different laboratories
for 475° embrittlementVery gage, Severn gage, ferrite
* Very good ductility scope.
* No risk of cold cracking or brittle fracture
* High toughness properties down to (very) low
temperatures (cold tough)
* Full-austenitic steels are non-magnetic, metastable steels
almost non-magnetic
 Primary chemical composition
Sl.no. Material Type
ISO 15608
Group no. (%max) and Yield Weldability Issues Counter Measures Remarks
Strength(N/mm2 )
Main * tend to 475° * use low carbon filler or Ni * Exhibit ferromagnetic
alloying C Cr Ni Mn Mo PREN embrittlement base filler reaction
elements *σ phase formation * for σ phase use less (reason: approx. 50% δ
* the risk of ferrite filler, solution ferrite)
embrittlement, treatment, grain * Duplex steels tend to
0.05 22 2 to 5 - < 30
Lean Duplex 4 coarse grain refinement by weld pool strain
formation and agigtating hardening (reason: high
22 hydrogen-induced * Temper below 475 ̊C or austenite content)
4 to 2 to
Standard 0.05 to - < 40 cold cracking when δ above * Exhibit a pronounced
24 5 3
Duplex ferrite > 60% 475 ̊C and rapidly cool tendency
24 6 to * risk of hot crack down to embrittlement by
3 to 40 to formation when γ > * For sensitization use low intermetallic
Stainless Super 0.05 to -
26 7 4 49 50% carbon filler, stabilized filler precipitations
steel: Duplex material, solution
11 Austenetic 27 treatment
- Ferritic 6 to 2 to
Hyper 0.05 to 7 - 6 ≥ 49
(Duplex) 32
Duplex
* Group no. 10:
- 10.1: Austenitic 10 ferritic stainless steels
with Cr ≤ 24 %
- 10.2: Austenitic 10 ferritic stainless steels
with Cr ≥ 24 %
* Y.S - > 400
* Nitrogen alloyed duplex steels
exhibit the highest strength
values
 ISO 15608 Primary chemical composition (%max) and Yield Counter
Sl.no. Material Type Weldability Issues Remarks
Group no. Strength(N/mm2 ) Measures

12 Copper 31 to 38 * Pure copper: * Copper melting temp: 1085 ̊C

- Y.S: 70, UTS: 200 to 400 * High thermal and electrical conductivity
and - Oxygen containing Copper: 99.90%Cu, 0.005 * High thermal expansion
Copper to .040% oxygen * Hydrogen embrittlement dureing welding:In melted copper oxide is fully dissolved but
alloys - Oxygen free Copper (without deoxidation): in the solid phase, due to its insolubility, it precipitates
99.95%Cu along the grain border and to the inner-grain, these precipitations generate an
- Oxygen free Copper(deoxidised): 99.90Cu%, undesirable embrittlement of the copper.
0.003 to 0.040P% (Cu2O + H2 = 2 Cu + H2O)
* Brass (Cu+Zn): 55 to 95%Cu, 5 to 45Zn% * Hot embrittlement: small amounts of impurities like S and Bi do have negative
- α Brass: < 30% Zn influences to the fracture reduction-area of technical pure copper in the temperature
- β Brass: > 30% Zn range between 300 and 420°C
- Y.S: >200, UTS: 550 * Tin Bronze: Characteristic material properties are the high strength, deformability,
* Tin Bronze (Cu + Sn): 91.5%Cu, 8.5%Sn ability for strain hardening, corrosion resistance and the sliding properties.
* Aluminium Bronze (Cu + Al): 5 to 11% Al - Post heating can prevent stress cracking
* Nickel Bronze (Cu + Ni): ≤ 50% Ni * Brass: Characteristic material properties are the high strength, deformability, ability for
- Cupronickel(Cu + Ni + Fe + Mn): strain hardening, corrosion resistance and the sliding properties.
10% Ni, 1.6% Fe, 1% Mn, balance Cu - β phase brass under lower temperature are very brittle intermetallic phase
- Most of the copper zinc alloys are not or limited suitable for welding
- < 20% Zn preheating is recommended
* Aluminium bronze: exhibit a very high seawater corrosion resistance and likely chances
for hot cracking
* Nickel Bronze: exhibit a very high seawater corrosion resistance
- it has good weldability and can easily be welded with TIG, MIG and manual
metal arc welding without preheating.
* Oxide inclusion creates porosity
 ISO 15608 Primary chemical composition (%max) and Yield Counter
Sl.no. Material Type Weldability Issues Remarks
Group no. Strength(N/mm2 ) Measures

13 Magnesiu Does not * Mg alloys with Aluminium: * Melting temperature: 650 ̊C

m have a - MgAlZn, MgAlMn: 6 to 9% Al, * Magnesium is highly flammable (as powder or chip or flakes or small
specific pieces)
0.2 to 3.5% Zn, * its magnetic behaviour is paramagnetic
group- or
sub-
* Mg alloys with rare earth * it is relatively brittle and has a worse cold-formability due to its HCP
elements: (5% max) structure
grouping * Al & Mn highly improve the worse formability of the pure magnesium
classifica - Cerium, Yttrium, Zirconium * Zirconium has a grain refining influence and therfore a tensile strength
tion for improving influence and comperatively good corrosion resistance
magnesiu * The aluminium content of MgAlZn-alloys (up to 9 %) improves the
m and weldability by grain refinement
magnesiu * rare earth metals like yttrium, lanthanum, cer und neodymium do reduce
the hot-cracking risk and improve weldability
m * Higher contents of Zn (> 2 %) are increasing the tendency of hot-craking
alloys. and deteriorate the weldability.
* high internal residual welding stresses and
* the risk of fire thru larger machining chips and spatter concentrations.
* the relatively low boiling point of 1,110 °C (fume generation requires
extraction)
* the amount of heat input should be limited as otherwise a coarse grain
and embrittled weld metal microstructure will arise which could lead to a
loss of ductility
Sl.no. Material ISO 15608 Primary chemical composition (%max) Weldability Issues Counter Measures Remarks
Type Group no. and Yield Strength(N/mm2 )

14 Nickel * Group no. 41 to 48 * Formation of γ' and γ" through Precipitate hardening (Super * Melting Temp: 1453 ̊C
and * Types of Alloys: alloys): * pure nickel is ferromagnetic at
Nickel 1.) Niclel copper: 1.) Solution treatment of Ni alloys with Al, Ti, Nb to room temperature and becomes
- Monel (Ni + Cu): 30 to 45% Cu
alloys 2.) Nickel ferrous: 1000 to 1150 °C non-magnetic at temperatures
- (Ni + Fe): ≤ 22% Ni (BCC) 2.) with following fast cooling, gamma-solid-solutions are above 360 °C.
- (Ni +Fe): > 22% Ni (FCC) generated in which the elements Al, Ti and Nb are present in * It has a good hot- or cold
3.) Nickel - Chromium and Nickel - Chromium - supersaturated deformability and is easy to
Ferrous: solution fusion-weld.
- Nimonic (Ni + Cr) 3.) By ageing 12 to 20 h at temperatures around 720°C finely * HAZ softening is not a serious
- Inconel (Ni + Cr + Fe)
4.) Haste alloys (Super alloys) divided Ni3Al, Ni3Ti as intermetallic phases are precipitated in the problem in Ni base alloys
- Ni + Cr + Mo (with Al, Ti, Nb) microstructure and on the grain boundaries which are also called * Over aging does not occur since
- Ni + Mo (with Al, Ti, Nb) γ`-phase, with Ni3Nb called γ" phase the material is designed for high
- used for high temp services 650 ̊to 1000 ̊C 4.) γ' forms before stress releaving and γ" forms after stress temp for limited life span
* New super alloys: releaving * no strain hardening to be done
- Ni,Cr,Al,Y
- Co,Cr,Al,Y (used for high hot corrosion * In P.H alloys only 20% is real matrix remaining 80% is since it is meant for high temp
resistance) precipitates service it needs coarse grain.
0 to 1: Rapid heating to 1000 ̊C to 1150 ̊C * Super alloys: If alloys > 30% it is called super alloys
1 to 2: Soaking or holding for stress releaving * New super alloys are made with less Cr and increasing Al, Ta,Y,Zr
2 to 3: Rapidly cool down to temp say 720 ̊ to which can act as thermal barrier of 0.9Tm
reach γ' * In TIG welding pure argon or helium is used. Argon hydrogen
3 to 4: Soak or hold for 12 to 20 hrs at 720 ̊C to
form precipitates and argon helium mixtures yield smoother bead surfaces.
* In GMAW shielding gas as same as TIG is used
* Using a shielding gas of 70% Ar + 25% He + 5% H2 does not
cause a firmly adhering oxide film on the seam surface.
* SAW is not appropriate for all nickel alloys because there is no
appropriate flux available for every alloy
 * Weldability Issues:
1.) nickel materials are welded in soft- or solution-annealed state. Great cleanliness is necessary for making perfect welds in order to, for example, avoid pores.
2.) Due to the long solidification interval prone to hot cracking during welding
3.) Sulphur increases cold cracking susceptability in welding due to formation nickel and nickel sulphide Ni-Ni3S2
4.) Annealing in highly oxidising atmosphere above 900 °C causes intergranular oxidation.
5.) primarily nitrogen leads to formation of pores, and also oxygen if present in larger quantities
6.) Strain age cracking (type of Reheat cracking) is predominant in Ni based alloys
- Rapid precipitation of strengthening phases upon reheating
- Often occurs in the HAZ
- Cracking tendency increases with Al+Ti content
- Grain boundary embitterment, Intergranular, Not easy to detect
- cracking due to GB liquid films + tensile stress,Constitutional liquation of NbC and/or Laves phases,S and/or B segregation to grain boundaries
* Aggravating factors:
- Presence of carbides, Laves, delta phases
- Impurities (C, B, S, P)
- Equilibrium and non-equilibrium segregation of B
- Coarse grain size,High heat input, Nail-head welds, Multi-pass welding
* Weldability Solutions:
- Weld in Solution Treated condition
- Use fine-grained materials
Nickel and Nickel - Control of B, S, P and Si levels
15 alloys - Avoid very high temperature solution treatments
- Use water quenching
- Use low heat inputs
- Control weld shape. Avoid nail-head formation
- Use cosmetic weld pass
- For pore formation use filler meatl alloyed with Al,Ti, Nb
 * Group no. 21 to 26 * Type of hardening mechanism:
* Type of alloy as per Aluminium Association: - Solid solution hardened
1.) Pure Al (≥99.0 %) - 1000 series - NHT - Strain hardened or Cold worked (CW)
2.) Al-Cu - 2000 series - HT (Heat Treatable) - Precipitation hardened
3.) Al-Mn - 3000 series - NHT (Non Heat - Grain refinement (innoculant addition,stirring)
Treatable) - Dispersion hardening
4.) Al-Si - 4000 series - NHT * Mechanism of Precipitaton hardened:
5.) Al-Mg - 5000 series - HT 1.)Solution annealing or solution treatment (ST)
6.) Al-Si-Mg - 6000 series - HT 2.) Rapid cooling or Quenching
7.) Al-Zn-Mg - 7000 series - HT 3.) Ageing
8.) Al-Fe-Si - 8000 series - NHT - Natural ageing (NA): if the proerty change occurs after a cold work due to
natural ambience temperature resulting the deformation for a period of time is
called natural aging, here no external processes used like heating
- Artifcial ageing (AA): If the material property changed with heating relatively at
low temperature <200 ̊C depending on the material.
* Solution annealing: For eg Al-Cu solution annealed ie heat slightly above the
melting point say 700 ̊C where β solute in the solid solutiion completly solved in to α solvent phase
16Aluminium * Quenching: Due to suuden cooling ther is no time for the β to diffuse and so the solid solid solution became
as Super Saturated Solid Solution α (SSSS α)
* Natural Ageing: On natural ageing SSSS α → α + GP zone (GP zone is max limit)
- GP (Guinier and Preston) zone : where few cluster of solute atoms of few
hundered atom size formed in the α matrix with coherent interface so there is
strain developed and strength increases
- GP1 and GP2: GP1 resembles much of solute, GP 2 resembles both Al and Cu
* Use pure Argon, Helium or Ar,He mixture phase
* TIG, Plasma arc welding preferably with AC
 * AA: On heating of 100 ̊ to 180 ̊C the GP zones formed as θ' phase (lamina like phase) on the * Aluminium highly reactive oxygen so rapidly forms
tetragonal structure of the intermetalliccompound Al 2Cu and forms coherent precipitations. oxide layer
* AA conditions: * EBW or LBW: Loss of Mg can result in a susceptible
Sloping solvus (High solubility @ high temp and low solubility @ low temp) weld composition
Coherency strains * LBW is difficult in welding aluminium due to
*Strengthening depends on: aluminium's reflective microstructure
Coherency strains * Main Solution treated condition:
Precipitate Vol.% T3 - ST + CW + NA
Size and distribution T4 - ST + NA
*Non Heat tretable alloys are more weldable than HT alloys T6 - ST + AA
*Weldability issues T7 - ST + OA (over aged)
- Hot cracking T8 - ST+ CW + AA
- HAZ softening in NHTalloys T9 - ST + AA + CW
- Hot cracking
* Liqution cracking:
- Occurs in PMZ (Partially melted zone)/HAZ
- Grain boundary melting due to eutectic melting
- Stresses
* Weldability Solution:
- for liquation cracking use fine grained base metals, Low heat inputs and high energy density
processes, Minimize HAZ/PMZ width, Low melting fillers
17Aluminium - For hot cracking: Use NHT Al alloy fillers, Fillers with higher solute content (large volume of
terminal liquid), Fusion zone grain refinement, low impurity material * During over aging θ' becomes θ ie state of withou
precipitation hardened
* Best way for weld aluminium without cracking by
usinf Al-Si filler
* In aluminium hydrogen cracking is ruled out ony
porosity exist
 * Group no. 51 to 54 * Extremely reactive and sensitive to contamination so use * Melting temperature: 1668 ̊C
* Crystal structure: - GTAW, GMAW, PAW * Low thermal and electrical conductivity,
1.) α - HCP (Upto 882 ̊C in pure Ti) - High purity shielding gases low thermal expansion coefficient
2.) β - BCC (above 882 ̊C in pure Ti) - Backing and trailing gas arrangements * Alloying elements influence
* α and β stabilizers: - Glove box welding transformation temperature
- α: Al, O, C, N * Ti alloys are seldom used in cold-worked condition * Excellent in oxidizing environments
- β: Isomorhus (Nb, Mo, V, Ta), - No real strength advantage * Poor in reducing environments
Eutectoid (Cr, Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, Cu, Si, Pd, H) - Inferior ductility * Near α alloy is good @ high creep
- Neutral elements: Zr, Sn * Hydrogen embrittlement resistance
* β ↔ α allotropic transformation - special shielding gas protection fixtures and auxiliary * Metastable β alloys
- Occurs at 882˚C in pure Ti equipment should be available -Higher strength and toughness than α+β
- Transformation mode * High H.I likely to increase grain size and reduces the toughness alloys (precipitation of fine α platelets)
- Slow cooling → Diffusional (α) * Main problems in welding Metastable β alloys: - Compositions closer to α+β alloys are
- Fast cooling → Martensitic (α′) - αGB formation during either weld metal cooling or post-weld aging stronger (High-strength alloys)
* Alloy types: (PWA) - Compositions closer to stable β alloys
- Commercially Pure Titanium (CP) - Segregation, especially in heavily-stabilized alloys (heavily stabilized alloys) are cold
- α alloys - Non-uniform formation of strengthening precipitates deformable
- Near α alloys - αGB formation unavoidable which is serious ductility loss * Stable β alloys
- α + β alloys * So use - Not age-hardenable
- Metastable β alloys - Use in as-welded condition - Not in commercial use
- β alloys - Use CP-Ti fillers * No serious cracking problems
18 Titanium * Forming of α': * No serious harm in going for PWA (αGB not very deleterious), but * Limited availability of filler wires
1.) β→ α + β (on cooling 100 ̊ C/S, undistorted HCP , α uniform precipitation is not easy to achieve * Most alloys suffer from poor weld
with more α stabilizers and β with more β stabilizers) * CP and α: ductility
2.) β→ α' + β (on fast cooling 300 ̊C/S, distorted HCP, - weldable * titanium-martensite (α‘) microstructure
aging at 500 to 550 ̊C α' with more β stablizers and β - good ductility (α' is soft due to low β stablizers) is a relatively soft
with less β stabilizers) Near α & α + β alloys: * Brittlness of α' or martensitic α depends
* α' is eqiaxed - weldable on β Stablizers
* Forming of β - inferior ductility (large amount of α' due more β stablizers)
1.) Super Saturated Solution of β and stabilizers * Metastable β alloys
quenched in α + β(rich) zone - Weldable &Good as-welded ductility
2.) two metastable phases, ω and β' which are coherent - low strength due to αGB
3.) Aged @ 400 ̊C to form (β' + β) = Metastable β
- Segregation problems
18 Titanium
Alloy Element Effect
SL No. Alloy Element Function or Effect
* The most important constituent of steel
* raises tensile strength, hardness
1 Carbon (C) * raises resistance to wear and abrasion
* lowers ductility, toughness and machinability.

* Increases tensile strength, hardness,

* Increases hardenability, toughness
2 Chromium (Cr) * Increases resistance to wear and abrasion
* Increases to resistance to corrosion, and scaling at elevated temperatures.

* A deoxidizer and degasifier

* reacts with sulfur to improve forgeability
* increases tensile strength, hardness, hardenability
3 Manganese (Mn) * Increases resistance to wear
* decreases tendency toward scaling and distortion
* increases the rate of carbon-penetration in carburizing
* Increases strength, hardness, hardenability, and toughness
Molybdenum * Increases creep resistance and strength at elevated temperatures
4 (MO) * improves machinability and resistance to corrosion
* intensifies the effects of other alloying elements
* Increases strength and hardness without sacrificing ductility and toughness
* increases resistance to corrosion and scaling at elevated temperatures when introduced in suitable quantities in high-chromium (stainless) steels.
5 Nickel (NI)

* Increases strength, hardness

* increases wear resistance and resistance to shock impact
6 Vanadium (V) * It retards grain growth, permitting higher quenching temperatures

* A deoxidizer and degasifier

7 Silicon (SI) * increases tensile and yield strength, hardness, forgeability and magnetic permeability.

* Used as stabilizing elements in stainless steels

* has a high affinity for carbon and forms carbides, which are uniformly dispersed throughout the steel
8 Titanium (TI) * Thus, localized precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries is prevented.

9 Phosphorus (P) ** Increases strength and hardness and improves machinability.

it adds marked brittleness or cold-shortness to steel.
* Improves machinability in free-cutting steels
10 Sulfur (S) * It decreases weldability, impact toughness and ductility.
* In significant amounts is detrimental to hot-working steels
* Copper is beneficial to atmospheric corrosion resistance when present in amounts exceeding 0.20%.
11 Copper (CU)
Sl.no Destructive Testing Scope Mechanism Outcome Remarks
* to determine one or more * a tensile specimen is generally * Tensile strength
strength- and deformation stretched to the breaking point * Yield strength
characteristics in * the required tensile force is * % reduction in area (necking)
1 Tensile Test compliance with certain recorded. * elongation in length
conditions. * Failure or fracture point

* The bending test serves for * Specimen is place b/w the * observation of crack apart from
testing the bending behaviour supports and bended by the weld metal or no crack observed
(plastic, ductility, shielding guide then the test is passed else the
ability) of metallic materials * Type of bend test: test is failed
2 Bend Test * The task of the weld bead – Transverse bend test
bend test is to determine the – Side bend test
crack absorbing/stopping – Longitudinal bending test
capability of a base – Face bending test
material
* The role of the impact test is to * A notched bending test * Toughness of the material is
determine the toughness, i.e. specimen is broken by an impact reatively qualified by the energy
the deformation capacity of a with a hammer swing at a absorbed value by the specimen
metallic material under impact specified temperature. * More energy absorbed more
loading (energy absorption) * The notch in the test piece tough and less energy absorbed
* It allows conveys by narrowing the less tough
the assessment of the fracture deformation area and by the * Energy unit: J/mm
behaviour under specified load formation of a * Fracture appearance:
3 Impact Test conditions. multi-axial stress state, the - Area with shear fracture
* Factors inducing fracture: tendency of brittle fracture appearance (fibrous,dull and
- Stress concentration @ notch * The fast loading of the test rough)
- Triaxial stress due to stress piece (impact with a – Area with cleavage fracture
- Material property striking velocity of 5 to 5.5 m/s) appearance (crystalline, i.e.
increases the tendency of brittle shiny)
fracture.
Sl.no Destructive Testing Scope Mechanism Outcome Remarks
* To determine the hardness value of * By indentation of specimen with different type * Hardness value  
material indenters * Hardness values can
* Hardness cannot be measured directly, * Type of test: only be compared if they
but it is derived from primary measuring – VICKERS: have been determined by
values (e.g. testing # diamond indenter (pyramid shaped) the same test method
force, penetration depth, compression # unit: HV with identical test
area). – BRINELL: parameters
# Ball type
4 Hardness Test # upto 500 BHN
– ROCKWELL
# diamond cone
# with loading sequence of 10Kg and 150 Kg
# Unit: HRC
# scale type: A, B, C and F

* to determine any internal defects like * Each edge of the weld at the joint is to be slotted * Soundness of weld
- slag inclusions * The piece thus prepared is bridged across two steel metal
- gas pockets blocks and stuck with a heavy hammer until the section of * any internal defect it is
- poor fusion the weld between the slots fractures. easy to break else it is
5 Nick break test or shear test - inclusion difficult to break

* To determine the toughness of material * An artificial notch with sharp tip is made and made to * Fracture toughness (KIC)
mainly under Tri axial stress, sharp notch, form crack is determined as an
stress concentration and different loading * Then failure is observed by applying stress to the important characteristic
condition. specimen value of the linear-elastic
* The CTOD test is one such fracture fracture mechanics
toughness test that is used when some
plastic deformation can occur prior to
Fracture Toughness Test: failure - this allows the tip of a crack to
6 stretch and open, hence 'tip opening
CTOD
displacement'.
Sl.no Destructive Scope Mechanism Outcome Remarks
Testing
* hydrogen cracking * 2 plates one is square other one is * Material susceptabilty in respect  
susceptibility slightly wider and 2 to 3 times length of to chemical composition and
* To asses the effect square plate cooling rate required to to prevent
of chemical * Both plate is clamped together by bolt in HIC
composition center and plates are fillet welded
Controlled Thermal * cooling rate on * Cool the weld not directly but placing the
7
Severity Test - CTS hardness lengthier plate to cold water
* Cut the specimen do hardness test and
evaluate for any HIC

* To asses the * weld metal to be deposited on all 4 sides * qualification of welding

hydrogen cracking of cruciform joints in sequence procedures
susceptibility in fillet * to be done in same direction for all weld * base metal composition
welds pass * consumable qualification
8 Cruciform Test * to be observe for any crack test shall be * preheat, interpass and post
discontinued and crack location to be heating requirements
located and eveluated

* Measures * threaded rods were welded inside the * qualification welding procedure
susceptibility to closely fitted hole which is beneath the * material property required to
hydrogen cracking ofweld metal in the base plate avoid HIC
HAZ of weldments * tensile load is applied on the rods until * preheat, interpass and post
the weld failure or 24 hrs heating requirements
9 Implant test
 Destructive
Sl.no Testing Scope Mechanism Outcome Remarks
* To characterize * Weld metal is deposited in a machined * max amount of restrained  
the degree of groove applied without cracking is to
restraint necessary * to be examined for any crack after the be taken as the index of
for weld metal weld metal cools to room temperature cracking susceptl and abilty for
cracking the particular combination of
10 Lehigh test base, filler metal and
parameters

* To assess hot * rectangular specimen is placed in * tangential strain can be

cracking cantilever position and welded along calculated by the result of
susceptibility centerline of the specimen solidification cracking is taken
Varestraint * specimen is made to bent to the shape of as the index for crack
11 test die placed below it by means of load susceptibility for the base metal
application
* weld metal is examined for any cracks after
cooling
* To evaluate * weld metal is deposited in the 'Y'-Groove * Base metal and filler metal
hydrogen and weld or restraint grrove susceptibility level for
metal solidification * After 48 hrs weld metal is examined for solidification and hydrogen
Oblique Y- cracking using by hydrogen cracks and sectioned to many cracking
groove test welding on Y specimens for internal examination
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or Tekken groove or * Solidification crack is examined
test restrained groove immediately when the weld metal starts
solidifying