BRIEF INTRODUCTION

TO ULTRASONIC
TESTING
WHAT TO DELIVER ?
(For Level I)
Introduction
Basic Principles of Acoustic
Equipment
Testing Method
Calibration (Electronic and Functional)
Straight Beam Examination to Specific Procedures
Angle Beam Examination to Specific Procedures
WHAT TO DELIVER ?
(For Level II)
Review of UT Technique Course
Evaluation of Base Material Product Forms
Evaluation of Weldments
Evaluation of Bonded Structures
Discontinuity Detection
Evaluation
 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
To understand and appreciate the
capability and limitation of UT
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Sound is transmitted in the material to be tested
The sound reflected back to the probe is
displayed on
the Flaw Detector
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
The distance the sound traveled can be displayed on the Flaw Detector
The screen can be calibrated to give accurate readings of the distance

Signal from the backwall

Bottom / Backwall
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
The presence of a Defect in the material shows up on the screen of the flaw
detector with a less distance than the bottom of the material

The BWE signal

Defect signal

Defect
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

60 mm

The depth of the defect can be read with reference to

the marker on the screen
 Thickness / depth measurement
The closer the reflector to
the surface, the signal will
be more to the left of the
C B A
screen

30 46 68

The thickness is read from the screen

The THINNER the material the

less distance the sound travel
C
B

A
ULTRASONIC TESTING

PRINCIPLES OF SOUND
Sound
Wavelength :
The distance required to complete a cycle
◦ Measured in Meter or mm

Frequency :
The number of cycles per unit time
◦ Measured in Hertz (Hz) or Cycles per second (cps)

Velocity :
How quick the sound travels
Distance per unit time
◦ Measured in meter / second (m / sec)
 Properties of a sound wave
Sound cannot travel in
vacuum
Sound energy to be
transmitted / transferred
from one particle to
another

SOLID LIQUID GAS

Velocity
The velocity of sound in a particular material is CONSTANT
It is the product of DENSITY and ELASTICITY of the material
It will NOT change if frequency changes
Only the wavelength changes
Examples:
V Compression in steel : 5960 m/s
V Compression in water : 1470 m/s
V Compression in air : 330 m/s

5 M Hz

STEEL WATER AIR

 Acoustic Spectrum
Sonic / Audible
Ultrasonic
Human
> 20kHz = 20,000Hz
20Hz - 20kHz

0 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M 10M 100m

Ultrasonic Testing
0.5MHz - 50MHz
Ultrasonic : Sound with frequency above 20 KHz
Frequency
Frequency : Number of cycles per second

1 second 1 second 1 second

1 cycle per 1 second = 1 3 cycle per 1 second = 3 18 cycle per 1 second =

Hertz Hertz 18 Hertz

THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY THE SMALLER THE WAVELENGTH

 Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance required to complete a cycle.
Sound waves are the vibration of particles in solids, liquids or gases.
Particles vibrate about a mean position.
wavelength
Displacement

 The distance
taken to
wavelength complete one
cycle
One cycle
Wavelength Velocity

V

f

Frequency
Wavelength and frequency
The higher the frequency the smaller the wavelength
The smaller the wavelength the higher the sensitivity
Sensitivity : The smallest detectable flaw by the system or technique

In UT the smallest detectable flaw is ½  (half the wavelength)

The Sound Beam
Dead Zone
Near Zone or Fresnel Zone
Far Zone or Fraunhofer Zone
The Sound Beam

NZ FZ Main
Beam

Intensity
varies

Exponential Decay

Distance
 The side lobes has multi
minute main beams
Two identical defects may give
different amplitudes of signals

Near
Side Lobes
Zone
The main beam or the centre
beam has the highest intensity of
sound energy

Main Lobe Any reflector hit by the main beam

will reflect the high amount of
energy
Main Beam
Sound Beam
Near Zone Far Zone
Thickness measurement Thickness measurement
Detection of defects Defect detection
Sizing of large defects only Sizing of all defects

Near zone length as small as possible

Near Zone
2
D
Near Zone 
4
V

f
2
D f
Near Zone 
4V
Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone  
4 4V
The bigger the diameter the bigger the near zone
The higher the frequency the bigger the near zone
The lower the velocity the bigger the near zone

Should large diameter crystal probes have a high or

low frequency?
Which of the above probes has the longest Near Zone ?

1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone  
4 4V
The bigger the diameter the bigger the near zone
The higher the frequency the bigger the near zone
The lower the velocity the bigger the near zone

Should large diameter crystal probes have a high or

low frequency?
 Beam Spread
In the far zone sound pulses spread out as
they move away from the crystal

/2


 K KV
Sine  or
2 D Df
Beam Spread
 K KV
Sine  or
2 D Df
Edge,K=1.22
20dB,K=1.08
6dB,K=0.56
Beam axis or
Main Beam
Beam Spread
 K KV
Sine  or
2 D Df
The bigger the diameter the smaller the beam spread
The higher the frequency the smaller the beam spread

Which has the larger beam spread, a compression or a

shear wave probe?
Which of the above probes has the Largest Beam Spread ?

1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
Beam Spread
 K KV
Sine  or
2 D Df
The bigger the diameter the smaller the beam spread
The higher the frequency the smaller the beam spread

Which has the larger beam spread, a compression or a

shear wave probe?
Testing close to side walls
Ultrasonic Testing techniques

Pulse Echo
Through Transmission
Transmission with Reflection
Pulse Echo Technique

Single probe sends and receives

sound
Gives an indication of defect
depth and dimensions
Not fail safe
Defect Position

B
A

No indication from defect A (wrong orientation)

Through Transmission Technique
Tx Rx
Transmitting and
receiving probes on
opposite sides of the
specimen

Presence of defect
indicated by reduction
in transmission signal

No indication of
defect location

Fail safe method

Through Transmission Technique
Advantages Disadvantages
Less attenuation Defect not located
No probe ringing Defect can’t be identified
No dead zone Vertical defects don’t show
Orientation does not matter Must be automated
Need access to both surfaces
Transmission with
Reflection
T R

Also known as:

Tandem Technique or
Pitch and Catch Technique
Ultrasonic Pulse
A short pulse of electricity is applied to a piezo-electric crystal
The crystal begins to vibration increases to maximum amplitude and then decays

Maximum

10% of
Maximum

Pulse length
Pulse Length
The longer the pulse, the more penetrating the sound
The shorter the pulse the better the sensitivity and resolution

Short pulse, 1 or 2 cycles Long pulse 12 cycles

Ideal Pulse Length

5 cycles for weld testing

 Sound at an Interface
Sound will be either transmitted across or reflected back

Reflected

How much is reflected and

Interface transmitted depends upon the
relative acoustic impedance of the
2 materials

Transmitted
The Phenomenon of Sound

REFLECTION
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION
Law of Reflection
Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

60o 60o
Inclined incidence(not at 90o )
Incident

Transmitted

The sound is refracted due to differences in sound

velocity in the 2 DIFFERENT materials
 REFRACTION
Only occurs when:

The incident angle is other than 0°

30°

Water Steel Water

Water Steel Steel

Refracted
REFRACTION
Only occurs when:

The incident angle is other than 0°

The Two Materials has different VELOCITIES

30°
30°

Steel Water

Steel Steel
65°
30°

No Refraction Refracted
Snell’s Law
Normal

Incident I
Material 1

Material 2 Refracted
R

Sine I Vel in Material 1


Sine R Vel in Material 2
Snell’s Law
C
20 Sine I Vel in Material 1

Sine R Vel in Material 2
Perspex Sine 20 2730

Steel Sine 48.3 5960
48.3 0.4580  0.4580
C
Snell’s Law
C Sine I Vel in Material 1
15 
Sine R Vel in Material 2

Perspex Sine 15 2730


Sine R 5960
Steel
5960
34.4 SinR  Sin15
2730
C
SinR  0.565
R  34.4
Snell’s Law
C
20

Perspex

Steel
48.3

C
24
S
Snell’s Law
C
C When an incident beam of sound
approaches an interface of two different
materials: REFRACTION occurs

Perspex
There may be more than one waveform
Steel transmitted into the second material,
example: Compression and Shear

When a waveform changes into

another waveform: MODE CHANGE
C
C
SS
Snell’s Law
If the angle of Incident is
C increased the angle of
refraction also increases

Up to a point where the

Compression Wave is at 90°
Perspex from the Normal

C
Steel 90° This happens at the
FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE

SC
CS
S
1st Critical Angle
C 27.4 Compression wave refracted at 90
degrees

33

S
2nd Critical Angle
C
C
57

S (Surface Wave)
90

Shear wave refracted at 90 degrees

Shear wave becomes a surface wave

 1st Critical Angle Calculation
C 27.2 Sine I 2730

Sine 90 5960
Perspex Sin 90  1
C
Steel 2730
SinI 
5960
S SinI  0.458
I  27.26
 2nd Critical Angle Calculation
C C Sine I 2730
57.4 
Sine 90 3240
Perspex Sin 90  1
S
Steel 2730
SinI 
3240
SinI  0.8425
I  57.4
 Before the 1st. Critical Angle: There are
1st. both Compression and Shear wave in
the second material
C
At the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE Compression
2nd. wave refracted at 90°
Shear wave at 33 degrees in the material

90° Between the 1st. And 2nd.

Beyond the 2nd. Critical Critical Angle: Only SHEAR
Angle: All waves are wave in the material.
reflected out of the Compression is reflected out of
material. NO wave in the the material.
material.
S C At the 2nd. Critical Angle: Shear is
refracted to 90° and become
33° SURFACE wave
 Summary
• Standard angle probes between 1st and
2nd critical angles (45,60,70)
• Stated angle is refracted angle in steel
• No angle probe under 35, and more
than 80: to avoid being 2 waves in the
same material. One Defect Two Echoes

C S

S
Sound Generation
Hammers (Wheel tapers)
Magnetostrictive
Lasers
Piezo-electric

magnetostrictive
 Piezo-Electric Effect
When exposed to an alternating current a crystal expands and
contracts

• Converting electrical energy into mechanical

- + + - - +
Piezo-Electric Materials
QUARTZ LITHIUM SULPHATE
Resistant to wear Efficient receiver
Insoluble in water Low electrical impedance
Resists ageing Operates on low voltage
Inefficient converter of energy Water soluble
Needs a relatively high voltage Low mechanical strength
Very rarely used nowadays Useable only up to 30ºC
Used mainly in medical
Polarized Crystals
Powders heated to high Examples
temperatures
Barium titanate (Ba Ti O3)
Pressed into shape
Lead metaniobate (Pb Nb O6)
Cooled in very strong
electrical fields Lead zirconate titanate (Pb Ti O3 or Pb Zr O3)

Most of the probes for conventional usage use

PZT : Lead Zirconate Titanate

Probes
Probes
The frequency of the probe depends on the THICKNESS of the crystal
Formula for frequency:
Ff = V / 2t
Where Ff = the Fundamental frequency
V = the velocity in the crystal
t = the thickness of the crystal

Fundamental frequency is the frequency of the material ( crystal ) where at that frequency the
material will vibrate.
 Probe Design
Compression Electrical
Probe connectors
◦ Normal probe
◦ 0°

Housing
Damping
Transducer
 Probe Design
Shear Probe
◦ Angle probe

Backing medium

Damping
Transducer

Probe Shoe

Perspex wedge
Probe Design Advantages
Can be focused
Twin Crystal Measure thin plate
Transmitter Receiver Near surface
resolution
Disadvantages
• Difficult to use on
curved surfaces
• Sizing small defects
• Signal amplitude /
focal spot length
Separator / Focusing
Insulator lens
Sound Intensity
Comparing the intensity of 2 signals

I 0 P0

I1 P1
Electrical power proportional to the
square of the voltage produced
2 2
P0 (V0 ) I 0 (V0 )
 2 Hence  2
P1 (V1 ) I1 (V1 )
Sound Intensity
2
I 0 (V0 )
 2 Will lead to large ratios
I1 (V1 ) 2
I0 (V0 )
Log..10  Log..10 2
Therefore I1 (V1 )
I0 V0
Log..10  2 Log..10 BELS
I1 V1
I0 V0
Log..10  20 Log..10 dB
I1 V1
2 signals at 20% and 40% FSH.
What is the difference between them in dB’s?

H0
dB  20 Log..10
H1
40
dB  20 Log..10  20 Log ..102
20

dB  20 0.3010
dB  6dB
2 signals at 10% and 100% FSH.
What is the difference between them in dB’s?

H0
dB  20 Log..10
H1
100
dB  20 Log..10  20 Log ..1010
10

dB  20 1
dB  20dB
AMPLITUDE RATIOS IN
DECIBELS
2 : 1 = 6bB
4 : 1 = 12dB
5 : 1 = 14dB
10 : 1 = 20dB
100 : 1 = 40dB
 Automated Inspections
• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection

• Contact scanning
• Gap scanning
• Immersion testing
Gap Scanning
Probe held a fixed distance
above the surface (1 or 2mm)
Couplant is fed into the gap
Immersion Testing
Component is placed in a water filled tank
Item is scanned with a probe at a fixed distance above the surface
Immersion Testing

Water path
distance

Front surface Back surface

Defect

Water path distance

Ultrasonic Testing
Sensitivity
Defect sizing
Scanning procedures
Sensitivity
The ability of an ultrasonic system to find the smallest specified defect at the maximum testing
range

Depends upon
• Probe and flaw detector combination
• Material properties
• Probe frequency
• Signal to noise ratio
Methods of Setting Sensitivity
Smallest defect at maximum test range
Back wall echo
Disc equivalent
Grass levels
Notches
Side Drilled Holes, DAC Curves
Artificial / actual defect

Example: The defect echo is set to

FSH (Full Screen Height)
Sizing Methods
6 dB Drop
For sizing large planar reflectors only
Signal / echo reduced to half the height
Example:
100% to 50%
80% to 40%
70% to 35%
20% to 10%

Centre of probe marked representing the edge of defect.

6 dB Drop
Defect BWE

The back wall echo reduced as some part of the

beam now striking the defect

The echo of the defect has NOT yet maximise as

the whole beam Not yet striking the defect
Plan View
6 dB Drop

Defect

Now the whole beam is on the defect

Back wall echo is now may be reduced or

disappeared

Plan View
6 dB Drop
Defect BWE

The probe is moved back until the echo is

reduced by half of it’s original height

At this point the probe centre beam is directly

on the edge of the defect

Plan View The probe is then removed and the centre is

marked, and repeat to size the whole defect
Sizing Method
Maximum Amplitude Technique
For sizing multifaceted defect – eg. crack
Not very accurate
Small probe movement
 Maximum Amplitude

Multifaceted defect : crack

The whole probe beam is on the on the
defect

At this point, multipoint of the defect reflect

the sound to the probe

The echo (signal) show as a few peaks

 Maximum Amplitude

Multifaceted defect : crack

If the probe is moved into the defect,
The probe is moved out of the the signals height increase
defect, the signal disappeared One of the peak maximised

If the edge of the beam strike the At this point the MAIN BEAM is
edge of the defect, a very small directly at the edge of the defect
echo appears
Maximum Amplitude Remember: The peak which maximised does not
have to be the tallest or the first one

Length

The probe is to be moved to the other end Mark the point under the
of the defect centre of the probe which
indicates the edge of the
The signals will flactuate as the beam hits the
defect
different faces of the defects
The probe is moved back into the defect and The length of the defect is
to observe a peak of the signal maximises measured
Equalization Technique
The equalization technique can ONLY be used if the
defect is halfway the thickness

Defect BWE

At this point the whole beam is on the The BWE is at it maximum

back wall
The Defect echo is at it maximum
At this point the whole beam is on
the defect The defect echo is at equal
At the edge of the defect, half of height as the back wall
the beam is on the defect, and The point is marked as the edge of defect
another half is on the back wall
 20 dB Drop
Defect BWE
20 dB Beam profile

10%

When the main beam is on the defect the defect signal is at it maximum

If the probe is moved and the signal is observed until it is reduced to 10%
(20dB Drop), the edge of the beam is on the edge of the defect
Repeat the above at the other side of the defect

Using the pre-constructed Beam profile and a plotting card, the defect
maybe sized
 Thickness Gauging
Ultrasonic thickness gauging
is routinely utilized in the
petrochemical and utility
industries to determine
various degrees of
corrosion/erosion.

• Applications
include piping
systems, storage
and containment
facilities, and
pressure vessels.
Flaw Detection - Delaminations
Contact, pulse-echo inspection for delaminations on 36” rolled
beam.

Signal showing multiple back

surface echoes in an unflawed area.

Additional echoes indicate

delaminations in the member.
Flaw Detection in Welds
One of the most widely used
methods of inspecting
weldments is ultrasonic
inspection.
Full penetration groove welds
lend themselves readily to
angle beam shear wave
examination.
Instrumentation
Ultrasonic equipment is usually purchased to satisfy specific inspection needs,
some users may purchase general purpose equipment to fulfill a number of
inspection applications.
Test equipment can be classified in a number of different ways, this may include
portable or stationary, contact or immersion, manual or automated.
Further classification of instruments commonly divides them into four general
categories: D-meters, Flaw detectors, Industrial and special application.
Equipment
Equipment for ultrasonic testing is very diversified. Proper selection is important to insure
accurate inspection data as desired for specific applications.
In general, there are three basic components that comprise an ultrasonic test system:
- Instrumentation
- Transducers
- Calibration Standards
 Instrumentation (cont.)
D-meters or digital thickness gauge
instruments provide the user with a digital
(numeric) readout.
They are designed primarily for
corrosion/erosion inspection applications.

• Some instruments provide the user

with both a digital readout and a
display of the signal. A distinct
advantage of these units is that they
allow the user to evaluate the signal
to ensure that the digital
measurements are of the desired
features.
Instrumentation (cont.)
Flaw detectors are instruments
designed primarily for the inspection
of components for defects.
However, the signal can be evaluated
to obtain other information such as
material thickness values.
Both analog and digital display.
Offer the user options of gating
horizontal sweep and amplitude
threshold.
Instrumentation (cont.)
Industrial flaw detection instruments, provide users with more options than
standard flaw detectors.
May be modulated units allowing users to tailor the instrument for their
specific needs.
Generally not as portable as standard flaw detectors.
Instrumentation (cont.)
Immersion ultrasonic scanning systems
are used for automated data acquisition
and imaging.
They integrate an immersion tank,
ultrasonic instrumentation, a scanning
bridge, and computer controls.
The signal strength and/or the time-of-
flight of the signal is measured for every
point in the scan plan.
The value of the data is plotted using
colors or shades of gray to produce
detailed images of the surface or internal
features of a component.
Calibration Standards
Calibration is a operation of configuring the ultrasonic test equipment to known
values. This provides the inspector with a means of comparing test signals to
known measurements.
Calibration standards come in a wide variety of material types, and
configurations due to the diversity of inspection applications.
Calibration standards are typically manufactured from materials of the same
acoustic properties as those of the test articles.
The following slides provide examples of specific types of standards.
 Calibration Standards (cont.)
Thickness calibration
standards may be flat or
curved for pipe and tubing
applications, consisting of
simple variations in material
ASTM Distance/Area Amplitude
thickness.
Distance/Area Amplitude
standards utilize flat bottom
holes or side drilled holes to
establish known reflector size
with changes in sound path NAVSHIPS

form the entry surface.

 Calibration Standards (cont.)

There are also calibration IIW

standards for use in angle

beam inspections when
flaws are not parallel to
entry surface.
These standards utilized
side drilled holes, notches, DSC DC Rhompas
and geometric configuration
to establish time distance
and amplitude
relationships. SC
ASME Pipe Sec. XI
 Qualification Standards
Qualification
standards differ from AWS Resolution DC-dB Accuracy

calibration standards
in that their use is for
purposes of varying
proper equipment
operation and
qualification of
equipment use for IOW Beam Profile
specific codes and
standards.
Data Presentation
Information from ultrasonic testing can be presented in a number of differing
formats.
Three of the more common formats include:
◦ A-scan
◦ B-scan
◦ C-scan

These three formats will be discussed in the next few slides.

 Data Presentation - A-scan

A-scan presentation displays the

Signal Amplitude
amount of received ultrasonic
energy as a function of time.
Relative discontinuity size can be
estimated by comparing the
signal amplitude to that from a
known reflector. Time

Reflector depth can be

determined by the position of the

Signal Amplitude
signal on the horizontal sweep.

Time
Data Presentation - B-scan
B-scan presentations display a profile view (cross-sectional) of a test specimen.
Only the reflector depth in the cross-section and the linear dimensions can be determined.
A limitation to this display technique is that reflectors may be masked by larger reflectors near
the surface.
Data Presentation - C-scan
The C-scan presentation displays a plan type view of the test specimen and
discontinuities.
C-scan presentations are produced with an automated data acquisition system,
such as in immersion scanning.
Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is necessary when depth
determination is desired.

Photo of a Composite C-Scan Image of

Component Internal Features
Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing
1. Sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
2. Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other
methods.
3. Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo technique is used.
4. High accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.
5. Minimal part preparation required.
6. Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
7. Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
8. Has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to flaw detection.
Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing
1. Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
2. Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
3. Normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound energy into test
specimen.
4. Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
5. Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound
transmission and high signal noise.
6. Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
7. Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration, and
characterization of flaws.
BRIEF EXPLANATION
ABOUT ULTRASONIC
PULSE VELOCITY FOR
CONCRETE
ASTM C597 STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR PULSE
VELOCITY THROUGH CONCRETE
objective
Homogenity of the concrete
Presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections
Changes in the structure of the concrete with time
Quality of concrete related to standard requirement
Quality of one element of concrete in relation with another
Values of dynamic elastic modulus of the concrete
Apparatus
a) Electrical pulse generator
b) Transducer
c) Amplifier
d) Electronic timing device
Techniques measuring for pulse Velocity
Test
Direct transmission
Indirect transmission
Semidirect transmission
Factors affecting
1. Smoothness of contact surface under test
2. Influence of path length on pulse velocity
3. Temperature of concrete
4. Moisture condition of concrete
5. Presence of reinforcing steel
Applications
Establishing uniformity of concrete
Establishing acceptance criteria
Determination of pulse modulus of Elasticity
Estimation of strength of concrete
Determination of setting characteristics of concrete
Studies on durability of concrete
Pulse velocity techniques
Measurement of deterioration of concrete due to fire exposure