UNIT - III

REACTIVE POWER- VOLTAGE CONTROL

Generation and absorption of reactive power - basics of

reactive power control – Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) –
brushless AC excitation system – block diagram representation of
AVR loop - static and dynamic analysis – stability compensation –
voltage drop in transmission line - methods of reactive power
injection - tap changing transformer, SVC (TCR + TSC) and
STATCOM for voltage control.

1
What is Reactive Power?

• While active power is the energy supplied to run a motor,

heat a home, or illuminate an electric light bulb, reactive
power provides the important function of regulating
voltage.

• If voltage on the system is not high enough, active power

cannot be supplied.

• Reactive power is used to provide the voltage levels

necessary for active power to do useful work.

• Reactive power is essential to move active power through

the transmission and distribution system to the customer.
How Are Voltages Controlled?

• Voltages are controlled by providing sufficient

reactive power control margin to “modulate” and
supply needs through:
1. Shunt capacitor and reactor compensations
2. Dynamic compensation
3. Proper voltage schedule of generation.

• Voltages are controlled by predicting and

correcting reactive power demand from loads.
Reactive Power Management and Control is
Critical for Overall System Stability
Voltage Must be Maintained Within Acceptable Levels

• Under normal system conditions, both peak or off peak

load conditions, the voltages need to be maintained
between 95% and 105% of the nominal.

• Low voltage conditions could result in equipment

malfunctions:
1. Motor will stall, overheat or damage
2. Reactive power output of capacitors will be reduced
exponentially
3. Generating units may trip.

• High voltage conditions may:

1. Damage major equipment – insulation failure
2. Automatically trip major transmission equipment.
 Reactive Power System Sources & Sinks

Sources Transmission System Sinks

Line Charging (Source)

Synchronous Condensers Synchronous Condensers

& Generators & Generators
Reactive Losses (Sink)

Reactors
Capacitors Reactive Load
Reactive
flow across
interconnections Reactive
flow across
interconnections
 Voltage and Reactive Power

• Voltage and reactive power must be

properly managed and controlled to:

1. Provide adequate service quality

2. Maintain proper stability of the

power system.
 Maintain Proper Stability of the Power System

Line Tie Lines

ing
u s C a pacitors Charg
o rs
Synchron Generato
ers
Condens

ors
Generat Losses
gulato r s
s Loads Re
Reactor
Tie Lines
Voltage Collapse Phenomenon

Inadequate reactive support

Which results in:

Voltage drops
Which results in:
Reduced reactive power from capacitors and line charging

Which results in:

Less reactive power support
Which results in:
Greater voltage drops
Which results in:

Tripping of generating units due to low auxiliary voltage

level or generator field current limiters

VOLTAGE COLLAPSE
Calculation of sending and receiving end voltages in terms of
real and reactive power in transmission line
 August 14, 2003 Blackout
Northeastern United States and the Great Lakes region of Canada lost power

Several Causes:
• Sufficient voltage studies were not
conducted.

• Operational voltage criteria that did not

reflect actual voltage stability conditions
and needs were used in voltage analyses.

• Inadequate practices without correction

were used.
 August 14, 2003 Blackout

Conclusion:
• The August 2003 Blackout study team concluded that
inadequate voltage and reactive power planning were
contributing factors to the incident.

Recommendation:
• National Electric Reliability Council specifically
recommended stricter voltage and reactive planning and
assessment practices to be implemented by electric
utilities.
 Voltage & Reactive Power Planning And
Assessment Practices
Key Principles:
• Reactive power cannot be transmitted over a
long distance or through power transformers due
to excessive reactive power losses.

• Reactive power supply should be located in

close proximity to its consumption.

• Sufficient static and dynamic voltage support is

needed to maintain voltage levels within an
acceptable range.

• Sufficient reactive power reserves must be

available to regulate voltage at all times.
 Voltage & Reactive Power Planning And
Assessment Practices
Key Implications:
• Metering must be in place and maintained to capture
actual reactive consumption at various points.

• Transmission and Distribution planners must determine

in advance the required type and location of reactive
correction.

• Reactive power devices must be maintained and

functioning properly to ensure the correct amount of
reactive compensation.

• Distribution reactive loads must be fully compensated

before transmission reactive compensation is considered.
 Static vs. Dynamic Voltage Support

• The type of reactive compensation required is based

on the time needed for voltage recovery.

• Static Compensation is ideal for second and minute

responses. (capacitors, reactors, tap changes).

• Dynamic Compensation is ideal for instantaneous

responses. (condensers, generators)

• A proper balance of static and dynamic voltage

support is needed to maintain voltage levels within an
acceptable range.
Voltage Coordination

• The reactive sources must be coordinated to ensure

that adequate voltages are maintained everywhere
on the interconnected system during all possible
system conditions.

• Maintaining acceptable system voltages involves

the coordination of sources and sinks which
include:
1. Plant voltage schedules
2. Transformer tap settings
3. Reactive device settings
4. Load shedding schemes.
 Voltage Coordination

• The consequences of uncoordinated operations would

include:
1. Increased reactive power losses
2. A reduction in reactive margin available for
contingencies and extreme light load conditions
3. Excessive switching of shunt capacitors or reactors
4. Increased probability of voltage collapse conditions.
Voltage Schedule

• Each power plant is requested to maintain a

particular voltage on the system bus to which
the plant is connected.

• The assigned schedule will permit the

generating unit to typically operate:
1. In the middle of its reactive capability range
during normal conditions
2. At the high end of its reactive capability
range during contingencies
3. “Under excited” or absorb reactive power
under extreme light load conditions.
Transformer Tap Settings

• Transformer taps must be coordinated with

each other and with nearby generating station
voltage schedules.

• The transformer taps should be selected so that

secondary voltages remain below equipment
limits during light load conditions.
Reactive Device Settings

• Capacitors on the low voltage networks should

be set to switch “on” to maintain voltages
during peak and contingency conditions.

And

• “Off” when no longer required to support

voltage levels.
Load Shedding Schemes

• Load shedding schemes must be implemented

as a “last resort” to maintain acceptable
voltages.
Voltage and Reactive Power Control

• Requires the coordination work of all Transmission and

Distribution disciplines.

1. Transmission needs to:

• Forecast the reactive demand and required reserve
margin
• Plan and install the required type and location of
reactive correction
• Maintain reactive devices for proper
compensation
• Maintain meters to ensure accurate data
• Recommend the proper load shedding scheme if
necessary.
Voltage and Reactive Power Control

2. Distribution needs to:

• Fully compensate distribution loads before
Transmission reactive compensation is
considered
• Maintain reactive devices for proper
compensation
• Maintain meters to ensure accurate data
• Install and test automatic under voltage load
shedding schemes.
Objectives of Reactive Power and Voltage Control
Equipment security: –
Voltages at terminals of all equipment (of either utility and customers
) in  the system are within acceptable limits to avoid damage

System stability: –
System stability is enhanced to maximize utilization of the transmissi
on 
system. (Voltage and reactive power control have a significant impact
 on  system stability.)

Transmission efficiency: –
The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce RI2 and XI2
losses to 
improve transmission system efficiency, i.e. leaving the room mainly 
for  real power transfer
 Basics of Reactive Power Control
• The Reactive power control provides the important functions of regulating
voltage.
• Reactive power control provides the necessary voltage levels required for
active power to do useful work
• It supplies required reactive power to move the active power through the
transmission and distribution line to the customer
• It serves two operation
– Load Compensation
• Increase the power factor of the system
• Balance real power drawn from the system
• Compensate Voltage regulation
• Eliminate current harmonics
– Voltage Support – Decrease voltage Fluctuation
 Automatic Voltage Regulator

• AVR is an adjustment device that controls the

generator output voltage within a specified
range
• AVR increases or decreases the generator
excitation to maintain the voltage within the
permissible limit
 Excitation System
• The Excitation consists of an exciter and Automatic Voltage
Regulator (AVR). It provide direct current to the synchronous
machine.
– Exciter:
• The field winding of the synchronous machines are always
supplied with d.c from d.c generator called exciter.
• It delivers the d.c power to the generator field
• It must have adequate power capacity and sufficient speed
of response.
– In older power plant-exciter consists of a d.c generator
driven by the main generator field. Power transfer via-
slip rings and brushes.
– In modern trends, static excitation system or Brushless
excitation system.
29
 Purpose of a excitation systems
• It basic function is to provide DC to the synchronous machine field
winding
• It can regulate the terminal voltage of the machine
• Regulation of the load angle
• Protection of the generator can be assured
• Regulation of MVAR and power factor
• It can utilize maximum machine capability
• It can guard the machine against inadvertent tripping during transients
• It can control the reactive power flow and it can do the sharing of the
reactive load between the machines which operates parallel in the grid
• It can improve dynamic and transient stability and by that, it can
increase the availability
Requirements of a excitation systems
 Functional Block Diagram of a synchronous generator excitation
control system
Required Elements for an Excitation system
Exciter
Regulator
Power system stabilizer
Limiters and protective circuit
Terminal voltage transducer and load
compensator
 Excitation System

• Types of Excitation system

1. D.C Excitation system
2. A.C Excitation system
3. Static excitation system
4. Brushless excitation system

33
 Excitation System
• D.C Excitation system
– This excitation system utilizes d.c generators as sources of
excitation power and provide current to the rotor of the
synchronous machine through slip rings.
– It may be either self excited or separately excited.

34
• A.C Excitation system
– This excitation system utilizes alternators (A.C machines) as sources of
main generator excitation power. Usually, the exciter is on the same
shaft as the turbine generator.
– The a.c output or the exciter is rectified by either controlled or un
controlled rectifiers to provide the direct current for the generator field.
• Static Excitation system
– All components in these are static or stationary. Static rectifiers,
controlled or uncontrolled, supply the excitation current directly to the
field of the main generator through slip rings.
– The supply of power to the rectifiers is from the main generator through
a transformer to step down the voltage to an appropriate level or in some
cases from auxiliary windings in the generator.

36
Brushless Excitation System
 Modeling of Typical Excitation System
or
Modeling of Automatic Voltage Regulator(AVR)
• AVR:
– For an isolated generator feeding a load the AVR functions
to maintain the bus bar voltage constant. However, on
dynamic interconnected system the AVR has the following
objectives.
• To keep the system voltage constant so that the
connected equipment operate satisfactory.
• To obtain a suitable distribution of relative load between
machine working in parallel and
• To improve stability

38
 Block diagram of typical AVR loop

Exciter Generator

Error voltage if

ie

Voltage Amplifier
|| Vf G
comparator e V1 V2

V1 = e – Vst
ist

Stabilizing
Transformer
Voltage Sensor

Vst
 Modeling of Typical Excitation System
or
Modeling of Automatic Voltage Regulator(AVR)
Exciter Generator

Error voltage if

ie

Voltage Amplifier
|| Vf G
comparator e V1 V2

V1 = e – Vst
ist

Stabilizing
Transformer
Voltage Sensor

Vst

Schematic diagram of Automatic Voltage Regulator(AVR)

40
Modeling of Automatic Voltage Regulator(AVR)
• Schematic diagram of Automatic Voltage
Regulator(AVR) consists of
– Voltage comparator
– Error amplifier
– Main exciter
– Synchronous generator,
– Voltage sensor and
– Stabilizing transformer.

41
• Voltage Comparator:
– This device compare the terminal voltage |V| of the
generator with a reference voltage which is set equal to the
terminal voltage |V0|.

42
• Amplifier:
– It amplifies the input error signal depending on the
amplification factor.
– There are various types of amplifiers used in the excitation
system.
– They are tuned generator, amplidyne and electronic
amplifier.

43
44
 Exciter:

the exciter produces K1 armature volts per ampere of field circuit i.e,
we have the proportionality and taking Laplace transform.

45
Transfer function of the exciter

Where

46
• Synchronous generator:
– This generator field is excited by the main exciter voltage
– The transfer function of the generator model is relation between rotor
filed voltage Vf and terminal voltage |V|.

47
 Under no load condition, the terminal voltage V= Internal
emf E

Transfer function of the generator

Where

48
• Stabilizing Transformer:
– Te and Tf are large enough time constants to impair the
system’s dynamic response. It is well known that the
dynamic response of a control system can be improved by
the internal derivative feedback loop.
– The derivative feedback in this system is provided by means
of stabilizing transformer excited by the exciter output
voltage.
– The output of stabilizing transformer is fed negatively at the
input terminals of the amplifier it can be assumed to draw
zero current

49
50
Transfer function of the stabilizing transformer

Where

51
Modeling of Automatic Voltage Regulator(AVR)

Amplifier Exciter Generator

Stabilizing transformer

Complete Block diagram of Typical Excitation System.

52
 Static Analysis

The AVR loop must satisfy the following requirements:

Regulate the terminal voltage to within required static accuracy
limit
Must have sufficient speed of response
The loop must be stable
Dynamic Analysis
Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power

Device/ Equipment kVAR kVAR

Generation Absorption
Synchronous Generator Yes Yes
Shunt Capacitor Yes -
Shunt Reactor - Yes
Transformer - Yes
Cables Yes -
Load - Yes
Compensating devices Yes Yes
SVC, STATCOM etc.
Overhead line Yes Yes
 Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power
• Synchronous machine:
– Synchronous machine can generate or absorb reactive
power.
– An overexcited synchronous machine operated either as
generator or motor generates KVAR and acts as a shunt
capacitor as viewed from the network.
– The under excited synchronous machine, absorbs KVAR
from the network and acts, consequently, as a shunt reactor
– Synchronous generators provide the cheapest means of
reactive power supply or absorption when required to
supply active power also.
– It is undesirable to transmit large amounts of KVAR over
transmission lines as this produces excessive voltage drop.

59
 Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power

• Shunt Capacitors:
– Apart from synchronous machines, static shunt
capacitors offer the cheapest means of reactive
power supply but these are not as flexible as
synchronous condenser.
• Shunt reactors:
– Shunt reactors offer the cheapest means of
reactive power absorption and these are
connected in the transmission line during light load
conditions.

60
 Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power
• Overhead lines:
– When fully loaded, line absorb reactive power with a
current of I ampere for a line of reactance per phase X in
ohm the VARs absorbed I2X per phase.
– On light loads, the shunt capacitance of longer lines may
becomes predominant and lines becomes VAR generator.
• Transformers:
– Transformers always absorb reactive power.
– If Xt is the transformer reactance per phase and |I| is the
current flowing through it then the total reactive power
absorbed is
QT = 3|I|2 XT VAR
Where
XT is in ohms, |I| is in amperes.

61
 Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power
• Cables:
– Cables generate more reactive power than transmission lines because the
cables have high capacitance.
– A 275kV, 240 MVA cable produces 6 to 7.5 MVAR per km; a 132kV
cable roughly 1.856 MVAR per km and a 33kV cable, 0.12MVAR per
km.
• Loads:
– A load at 0.95 power factor implies a reactive power demand of
0.33KVAR per kW of power, which is more appreciable than the mere
quoting of the power factor would suggest.
– In planning a network it is desirable to assess the reactive power
requirements to ascertain whether the generators are able to operate at
the required power factors for the extremes of load to be expected.

62
 VOLTAGE CONTROL
• Objectives:
– Practically all equipments used in power systems is
rated for a certain voltage with a permissible band
of voltage variations.
– Voltage at various buses must, therefore, be
controlled within specified regulation figure.
– The task of voltage control is closely associated
with fluctuating load conditions and corresponding
requirements of reactive power compensation.

63
 Methods of Voltage Control
1. Excitation control and voltage regulators in
generating station - STUDIED
2. Use of tap changing transformers at sending
and receiving end of the transmission line
3. Shunt reactors - Low loads
4. Shunt capacitor - High loads or low p.f.
5. Series capacitor - Long EHV line
6. Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
7. Synchronous condenser

64
 Series capacitor
• Series compensation is commonly used in high-voltage AC
transmission systems.
• Series compensation increases power transmission capability,
both steady state and transient, of a transmission line.
• Since there is increasing opposition from the public to
construction of EHV transmission lines, series capacitors are
attractive for increasing the capabilities of transmission lines.

65
 Series capacitor
• Power transmitted through the transmission system shown in fig is given
by:

Where
P2 = Power transmitted through the transmission system
V1 = Voltage at sending end of the line
V2 = Voltage at receiving end of transmission line
XL= Reactance of the transmission line
δ = Phase angle between V1 and V2
• Equation shows that if the total reactance of a transmission system is reduced
by installing capacitance in series with the line, the power transmitted through
the line can be increased.

66
 Shunt Reactor
• Since most loads are inductive and consume lagging reactive
power, the compensation required is usually supplied by
leading reactive power.
• Shunt compensation of reactive power can be employed
either at load level, substation level, or at transmission level.
• Shunt reactor compensation is usually required under
conditions that are the opposite of that requiring shunt
capacitor compensation.

67
 Shunt Reactor
• Shunt reactors may be installed in the following conditions:
– To compensate for over voltages occurring at substations
served by long lines during low-load periods, as a result of
the line’s capacitance (Ferranti effect as voltage tip up)
– To compensate for leading power factors at generating
plants, resulting in lower transient and steady-state
stability limits
– To reduce open-circuit line charging kVA requirements in
extra high-voltage (EHV) systems.

68
 Shunt Reactor
• Light load condition- shunt reactors required to
maintain normal voltage may be connected to the
EHV bus or tertiary winding of adjacent
transformers.
• Heavy load condition- reactors may have to be
disconnected. This is achieved by switching
reactors using circuit breakers.
• Shunt reactors are similar in construction to
transformers, but have a single winding/phase on
an iron core with air gaps and immersed in oil. They
may be of either single phase or three phases

69
 Shunt Capacitor
• Shunt capacitors supply capacitive reactive power to
the system at the point where they are connected,
mainly to counteract the out-of-phase component of
current required by an inductive load.
• They may either be energized continuously or
switched on and off during load cycles.

Fig. Use of shunt capacitors to counteract out-of-phase current component

70
 Shunt Capacitor
• Referring to the phasor diagram of Figure 2, the line current IL is the sum of
the motor load current IM and the capacitor current IC.

• It can be seen from the above that the application of shunt capacitors in a
network with a lagging power factor has the following benefits:
• Increase voltage level at the load
• Improve voltage regulation (if the capacitors are switched in and out
of the network correctly)Reduce I 2R active power loss and I 2X
reactive power loss due to the reduction in current
71
 Shunt Capacitor

• Increase power factor

• Decrease kVA (or mVA) loading on the source
generators and network to relieve an overload condition
or make capacity available for additional load growth
• Reduce demand kVA where power is purchased
• Reduce investment in system facilities per kW of load
supplied.

72
 Synchronous Condenser
• A Synchronous condenser is a synchronous machine running
without a prime mover or a mechanical load. It has wide
variation excitation control. It can be made to either generate or
absorb reactive power.
• With an automatic voltage regulator (AVR), it can be
automatically adjust the reactive power output to maintain
constant terminal voltage. It draws a small amount of reactive
power from the power system to supply losses.
• Synchronous condenser has been used for voltage and reactive
power control at both transmission and sub transmission levels.
They are often connected to the tertiary windings of
transformers.

73
Synchronous Condenser

74
 Synchronous Condenser
• Advantages:
– Synchronous compensators contribute to system short
circuit capacity.
– Their reactive power production is not affected by the
system voltage.
– During power swings there is an exchange of kinetic energy
between a synchronous condenser and the power system.
– It has an internal voltage source and is better able to cope
with low system voltage conditions.
• Disadvantages
– Due to high capital cost and complexity, synchronous
condensers are no more preferred.

75
 Tap Changing Transformer
• All power transformers on transmission lines are provided with
taps for control of secondary voltage.
• The tap changing transformers do not control voltage by
regulating the flow of reactive VAR’s but by changing
transformation ratio
– There are two types of tap changing transformer.
1. OFF LOAD TAP CHANGING
TRANSFORMER
2. ON LOAD TAP CHANGING
TRANSFORMER

76
 OFF LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
• Off load tap changers, which requires the disconnection
of the transformer when the tap setting is to be changed.
• Off load tap changers are used when it is to be operated in
frequently due to load growth or some seasonal change.

77
 ON LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
• It is used when changes in transformer ratio to be needed frequently, and
• No need to switch off the transformer to change the tap of transformer.
• it is used on power transformers, auto transformers and bulk distribution
transformers and at other points of load service.

78
 ON LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
• In the fig shown, the voltage is maximum and since the currents
divide equally and flow in opposition through the coil between
Q1 and Q2 the resultant flux is zero and hence minimum
impedance.
• To reduce the voltage, the following operations and required in
sequence:
– Open Q1
– Move Selector Switch S1 to the next contact
– Close Q1
– Open Q2
– Move Selector Switch S2 to the next contact
– Close Q2
79
MVAR injection to Maintain Acceptable Voltage
Profile and to Minimize Transmission Loss
or
STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR

80
 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)

• SVCs are shunt connected static generators and/or

absorbers whose outputs are varied so as to control
specific parameters of electric power system.
• The term “static” is used to indicate that SVCs, unlike
synchronous compensators, have no moving or
rotating main components.
• Thus an SVC consists of static var generator or
absorber devices and a suitable switching device.

81
 Static VAR Compensator(SVC)
• Types of SVC
– The following are the basic types of reactive power
control elements which make up all or part of any
static var system.
• Saturated reactor(SR)
• Thyristor controlled reactor(TCR)
• Thyristor controlled Transformer(TCT)
• Thyristor Switched Reactor(TSR)
• Thyristor Switched capacitor(TSC)
• Self or line commutated converter(SCC/LCC)

82
Static VAR Compensator(SVC)

A typical Static VAR system

83
 A typical Static VAR system
• Several SVS configuration have successfully
applied to meet differing system requirements
– Speed of response
– Size range,
– flexibility,
– losses and
– Cost are among the important considerations in
selecting a configuration for any particular
application

84
 A typical Static VAR system
• A typical SVS scheme consisting of a TCR, a
three unit TSC, and harmonic filters.
• At power frequency, the filters are capacitive
and produce reactive power of about 10 to
30% of TCR MVAR rating.
• In order to ensure a smooth control
characteristics, the TCR current rating should
be slightly larger than that of one TSC unit.

85
 SVC

SVS steady state characteristics

86
 SVC
• The linear control range lies within the limits determined by
the max. susceptance BLMAX of the reactor,
• The total capacitive susceptance BC as determined by the
capacitor banks in service and the filter capacitance.
• If the voltage drops below a certain level for an extended
period, control power and thyristor gating energy can be lost,
requiring a shutdown of the SVS.
• The SVS can restart as soon as the voltage recovers.
• However, the voltage may drop to low values for short periods,
such as during transient faults, without causing the SVS to trip.

87
 Application of SVC
• Control of temporary (power frequency) over
voltages
• Prevention of voltage collapse
• Enhancement of transient stability
• Enhancement of damping of system oscillations

88
Relation between Voltage, Power
and Reactive Power