Unit II

Point Sources

Electric Dipoles
• A point source is a single identifiable
localized source of something. A point
source has negligible extent,
distinguishing it from other source
geometries. Sources are called point
sources because in mathematical
modeling, these sources can usually be
approximated as a mathematical point to
simplify analysis.
• An isotropic radiator is a theoretical
point source of electromagnetic or sound
waves which radiates the same intensity
of radiation in all directions. It has no
preferred direction of radiation. It
radiates uniformly in all directions over a
sphere centered on the source. Isotropic
radiators are used as reference radiators
with which other sources are compared,
for example in determining the gain of
antennas.
Nonisotropic but similar point sources and the
Principle of Pattern Multiplication

Two nonisotropic point sources

  Pattern of  Pattern of array of two 
E   
individual source   isotropic point sources 
Principle of pattern multiplication
The total field pattern of an array of nonisotropic but
similar sources is the product of the individual source
pattern and the pattern of an array of isotropic point
sources each located at the phase center of the
individual source and having the same relative
amplitude and phase, while the total phase pattern is
the sum of the phase patterns of the individual source
and the array of isotropic point sources.
The total field E is

E  f ( ,  ) F ( ,  )f p ( ,  )  Fp ( ,  )
Field pattern Phase pattern

where
f (θ,ϕ) : field pattern of individual source
fp (θ,ϕ) : phase pattern of individual source
F(θ,ϕ) : field pattern of array of isotropic sources
Fp(θ,ϕ): phase pattern of array of isotropic sources
Ex.: Two identical point sources separated by d = λ/2 and δ=0

sin     
cos cos   sin  cos cos  
2  2 
Linear arrays of n Isotropic point sources of
Equal Amplitude and Spacing
Case 1: Broadside Array (Sources in Phase)
A broadside array is a type of antenna array
which is used to radiate the energy in specific
direction to make better transmission
Case 2: Ordinary End-fire Array
• A linear or cylindrical antenna array that emits its
radiation from one end. In this arrangement, the
maximum radiation is along the axis of the array. The
end-fire array consists of a number of identical
equally spaced antennae arranged along a line and
carrying current of equal amplitude.
Case 3: End-fire Array with Increased Directivity
Case 4: Array with maximum field in an arbitrary
direction. Scanning Array
 Linear Broadside arrays with nonuniform
amplitude distributions. General Considerations
Four amplitude distributions considered:
• Uniform
• Binomial
• Edge
• Optimum

Let us consider a linear array of 5 isotropic point

sources with λ/2 spacing.
Uniform distribution

• All sources are equal in amplitude & in

phase.
• It gives maximum directivity or gain.
• Pattern has HPBW of 23°.
• Side lobes are relatively large.
• First side-lobe amplitude is 24% of the
main-lobe maximum.
To reduce Side-Lobe Level (SLL) of linear in-phase
broadside arrays,
John Stone proposed:
The sources must have amplitudes proportional to the
coefficients of a binomial series of the form
n 1 n 1 ( n2) (n  1)( n  2) ( n 3) 2
( a  b) a  (n  1)a b a b  ...
2!
where n: number of sources

Relative amplitudes
for arrays of 3 to 6
sources are arranged
in Pascal’s triangle.
Binomial distribution

• For 5 sources, relative amplitudes are:

1, 4, 6, 4, 1.
• Pattern has no minor lobes.
• Disadvantages:
 HPBW ( = 31°) has increased.
 In large arrays, large ratio of current
amplitudes is required.
Edge distribution
• Only the end sources of
array are supplied with
power.
• 3 central sources are either
omitted or inactive.
• Relative amplitudes are:
1, 0, 0, 0, 1
• Main-lobe HPBW = 15°.
• Minor lobes are the same
amplitude as main lobe.
Optimum or Dolph- Tchebyscheff distribution

• It has the property of optimizing

relation between beam width & side
lobe level.
• It was proposed by Dolph & is based on
properties of Tchebyscheff polynomials.
• For a SLL of 20 dB below main lobe,
relative amplitude distribution is:
1, 1.6, 1.9, 1.6, 1
• HPBW is 27°.
 Electric Dipoles, Thin Linear Antennas and
Arrays of Dipoles and Apertures

The Short Electric Dipole

The Fields of a Short Dipole
(Derivation)
Electric fields of short dipole: (General case)
I 0 L cos e j[t ( r / c )]  1 1 
Er   2  
3 
2 0  cr jr 

I 0 L sin e j [t ( r / c )]  j 1 1 
E   2  2  
3 
4 0  c r cr jr 

E  0

Magnetic fields of short dipole: (General case)

I 0 L sin e j [ t ( r / c )]  j 1 
H  H    2
4  cr r 
H r  H  0
Far field case
When r is large, terms in 1/r2 & 1/r3 can be neglected in
field equations.
So, in far field, Er is negligible.
Only two field components are effective given as

Electric field of short dipole:

jI 0 L sin e j [t ( r / c )] I 0 L j [ t  ( r / c )]
E   j sin e
4 0 c 2 r 4 0 cr

Magnetic field of short dipole:

jI 0 L sin e j [t ( r / c )] I 0 L
H   j sin e j [ t ( r / c )]
4cr 4r
The ratio of Eθ and Hφ gives

E 1 0
   376.7
H   0c 0
which is intrinsic impedance of free space (a pure resistance).

Near & far field patterns of Eθ and Hφ Near far field pattern of Er
Radiation Resistance of Short Electric Dipole
Average Poynting vector is given by
1
S  Re( E  H  )
2
The far field components are Eθ & Hφ.
Radial component of Poynting vector is
1
S r  Re E H 
2
E 
As, Z so, E  H  Z  H 
H 
where Z is intrinsic impedance of the medium.
Hence, radial Poynting vector becomes
1  1 2 1 2 
S r  Re ZH  H   H  Re Z  H 
2 2 2 
Total power P radiated is
2  2
1 
P   S r ds    H  r 2 sin dd
2  0 0

|Hφ|, the absolute value of magnetic field, is

I 0 L sin 
H 
4cr
Substituting for P,
2  2
1   I 0 L sin   2
P
2  
0
0  4cr  r sin dd
 2 2 2 2 
1   I L
  dd
3
or P 0
2
sin
32   0 0

Evaluating the double integral, we get

1   2 I 02 L2 4   2 I 02 L2
P 2
(2 )  
32   3  12
Assuming no losses, this is also equal to the power
delivered to the dipole which is square of rms current
I flowing on dipole times the radiation resistance Rr of
dipole.
2 2 2 2
  I L  I0 
So, 
0
 Rr
 12  2
Evaluating Rr gives
  2 L2
Rr 
 6

For air or vacuum,  /    0 /  0  377  120 Ω

2 2 2 2
 L  2  2 80 2
So, Rr  120  20  L  2 L
6    

Hence, for dipole with uniform current,

2
Radiation L
Rr  80    80 2 L2  790 L2
2
Ω
resistance 
 The Thin Linear Antenna
• Antennas are symmetrically fed at the center by a
balanced two-wire transmission line.
• It is assumed that current distribution is sinusoidal.
• Antenna is thin, i.e. conductor diameter < say λ/100.
• So, sinusoidal current distribution approximates natural
distribution on thin antennas.
Far field equations
Retarded current at any point
z on antenna referred to a
point at distance s is
 2 L  j t ( r / c ) 
I   I 0 sin    z  e
 2 

In above equation,

 2 L 
sin    z  is the form factor for the current on antenna.
 2 
Far fields of center-fed dipole are obtained as follows:

jI 0   cos[( L cos  ) / 2]  cos(  L / 2) 

H 
2r  sin  

and using E  120H 

j 60I 0   cos[(  L cos  ) / 2]  cos( L / 2) 
E 
r  sin  

where I 0   I 0e j t ( r / c ) 
• Shape of far field pattern is given by the factor in
brackets.
• Instantaneous magnitude of fields is given by the
factors preceding the brackets.
Half-Wave (λ/2) antenna
For antenna length L = λ/2, the pattern factor becomes
cos[{ ( / 2) cos  } / 2]  cos[  ( / 2) / 2]
E
sin 
cos[( / 2) cos  ]
Using β = 2π/λ and solving gives E
sin 
 Radiation Resistance of λ/2 Antenna
Radial Poynting vector is
1  1  1  1 2 1 2 
S r  Re( E  H )  Re E H   Re ZH  H   H  Re Z  H 
2 2 2 2 2 
Total power P radiated is
2  2
1 
P   S r ds   
2
H  r sin dd
2  0 0
|Hφ|, the absolute value of magnetic field for a thin
linear antenna , is
I 0  cos[(  L cos  ) / 2]  cos(  L / 2) 
H 
2r  sin  
Substituting for total power P,
2  2
1   I 0  cos[(  L cos  ) / 2]  cos(  L / 2)  2
P
2  
0
0  2r  sin 
 r sin dd

For air or vacuum,  /    0 /  0  377  120 Ω

Using the above in equation of total power & solving,

2 2  2
15I {cos[(  L cos  ) / 2]  cos(  L / 2)}
P

0

0
0 sin 
dd

Evaluating the outside integral, we get

 2
{cos[(  L cos  ) / 2]  cos( L / 2)}
P  30 I 
2
0 d
0
sin 
2
 I0  I 02
Equating this radiated power with P    R0  R0
 2 2
R0: Radiation resistance at current maximum point
I0: Peak value in time of current at this point
we get
2  2
I 0 R0 2 {cos[(  L cos  ) / 2]  cos(  L / 2)}
 30 I 0  d
2 0
sin 
or
 2
{cos[( L cos  ) / 2]  cos( L / 2)}
R0  60 d
0
sin 
Evaluating this equation using sine integral, Si(x) &
cosine integral, Cin(x), we get radiation resistance as

Rr  30Cin(2 )  30  2.44  73 Ω

This is the value for the radiation resistance of a thin,

linear, center-fed, λ/2 antenna with sinusoidal current
distribution.
The terminal impedance also has some inductive
reactance as
Z  73  j 42.5 Ω

To make the λ/2 antenna resonant, the reactance is

made zero by shorting the antenna a few percent less
than λ/2.
This shortening results in reduction in the value of the
radiation resistance making it

Rr  65 Ω
Array of Two Driven λ/2 elements. Broadside case

• Two center-fed λ/2 elements

(dipoles) are arranged side by
side with spacing d.
• The two elements are fed with
currents equal in magnitude and
in-phase.

Field Patterns
Absolute far-field patterns will be
found for
• Horizontal Plane
• Vertical Plane
Horizontal Plane Pattern
Field intensity from a single element at large distance D
(D >> d) in horizontal plane (θ = 90°) is
E1 ( )  kI1
k: a constant (Ω/m) involving distance D
I1: terminal current

Let elements be replaced by isotropic point sources of

equal amplitude & fed in-phase.
Field pattern in such case is
 d r cos  
Eiso ( )  2 E0 cos 
 2 
Applying principle of pattern multiplication, and
considering E0 as field intensity from a single element at
distance D, i.e.
E0  E1 ( )  kI1
Putting this into the equation for Eiso yields the total
field intensity at large distance D from array as
 d r cos    d r cos   Horizontal plane
E ( )  E1 ( )2 cos   2kI1 cos 
 2   2  pattern

This expression is absolute field pattern in horizontal plane.

Electric field in this plane is everywhere vertically polarized.

Maximum field intensity is at φ = 90° or broadside to array.
Horizontal plane field patterns for broadside array of 2
linear in-phase λ/2 elements

For one element For 2-element array

Vertical Plane Pattern
Field intensity from a single element at large distance D
in vertical plane is
cos[( / 2) cos  ]
E1 ( )  kI1
sin 
Field pattern Eiso in vertical plane for isotropic point
sources in place of two elements is
Eiso ( )  2 E0

Considering E0 = E1(θ) as field intensity from a single

element and applying principle of pattern
multiplication, total field intensity in vertical plane at
distance D from array is,
 cos[( / 2) cos  ] Vertical plane
E ( )  2kI1 pattern
sin 

Above expression is absolute field pattern in vertical

plane.

For one element For 2-element array

Kraus: Fig. 6-21

3D field pattern
Driving Point Impedance
Gain in field intensity

Kraus: Fig. 6-23

 Array of Two Driven λ/2 elements. End-fire case
• Two center-fed vertical λ/2
elements (dipoles) are arranged
side by side, with spacing d, in an
array in free space.
• The two elements are fed with
currents of equal magnitude and
in opposite phase.
Kraus: Fig. 6-21
Field Patterns
Absolute field patterns will be found for
• Horizontal Plane
• Vertical Plane
Horizontal Plane Pattern
Field intensity E1(φ) from a single element at large
distance D in horizontal plane (θ = 90°) is
E1 ( )  kI1
k: a constant involving distance D
I1: terminal current
Let us replace the elements by isotropic point sources
of equal amplitude & fed out-of-phase.
Field pattern in horizontal plane for two such isotropic
out-of-phase sources is
 d r cos  
Eiso ( )  2 E0 sin  
 2 
Applying principle of pattern multiplication, and
considering E0 as field intensity from a single element at
large distance D, i.e.
E0  E1 ( )  kI1
Using this in the equation for Eiso gives the total field
intensity E(φ)at large distance D from array as
 d r cos    d r cos   Horizontal plane
E ( )  2 E1 ( ) sin    2kI1 sin  
 2   2  pattern

This is the absolute field pattern in horizontal plane.

Electric field in this plane is everywhere vertically polarized.
Maximum field intensity is at φ = 0° & φ = 180° making the
array end-fire type.
Vertical Plane Pattern
Field intensity from a single λ/2 element at large
distance D in vertical plane is
cos[( / 2) cos  ]
E1 ( )  kI1
sin 
Field pattern Eiso in vertical plane for isotropic point
sources in place of two elements is
 d r sin  
Eiso ( )  2 E0 sin  
 2 
(As θ is complementary to φ, sinθ can replace cosφ)
Considering E0 = E1(θ) as field intensity from a single
element and putting in above equation, total field
intensity in vertical plane at distance D from array is,
 cos[( / 2) cos  ]  d r sin   Vertical plane
E ( )  2kI1 sin   pattern
sin   2 

This is the absolute field pattern in vertical plane.

Field Patterns

Horizontal plane pattern Vertical plane pattern

Kraus: Fig. 6-26
Driving Point Impedance

Kraus: Fig. 6-27

Gain in field intensity

Kraus: Fig. 6-28 (a)

3D pattern
Horizontal Antennas above a plane ground
(Kraus: Sec. 6-15)
Vertical Antennas above a plane ground
 Long Wire Antennas
(Kraus: Sec. 6-21)
V Antennas
Rhombic Antennas
Beverage Antennas
Folded Dipole Antennas
Kraus: Fig. 6-73