Chapter 8 (CHEM 104)

Chapter 8
Bonding: General
Concepts
Chapter 8
Questions to Consider
• What is meant by the term “chemical bond”?
• Why do atoms bond with each other to form

compounds?
• How do atoms bond with each other to form

compounds?
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Section 8.1
Types of Chemical Bonds
A Chemical Bond
Bonds – Forces that hold group of atoms together

and make them function as a unit.
NaCl – attraction is electrostatic since Na+ and Cl– are the

stable forms of these elements. This is an example of
“Ionic Bonding”
A bond will form if the energy of the aggregate is

lower than that of the separated atoms.
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Section 8.1
Bond Energy
 It is the energy required to break a bond.

 It gives us information about the strength of a bonding
interaction, as well as radius.
Bond Length – The distance where the system

energy is a minimum.

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Section 8.1
The Interaction of Two Hydrogen Atoms
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Section 8.1
Covalent Bonds
There is no electron transfer.
Electrons are shared between two atoms, positioned

between the two nuclei.
Example: H2, O2, H2O, CO2 etc. Among non-metals only.
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Section 8.1
Ionic Bonds

Formed from electrostatic attractions of closely packed,
oppositely charged ions.
Formed when an atom that easily loses electrons (G 1A

and 2A) reacts with one that has a high electron affinity (G
5A, 6A, and 7A).
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Section 8.1
Ionic Bonds and Coulomb’s Law
The energy of interaction between pair of ions can be

calculated using Coulomb’s law
Q1  Q2
E = (2.31×10-19 J . nm) ×
r

where Q1, Q2 are charges on the ions (Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-).
r is shortest distance between centers of the cations and
anions (Ionic radii increases from top to bottom in a group).
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Section 8.1
Covalent or Ionic?
 Ionic Bonding – electrons are transferred
 Covalent Bonding – electrons are shared equally
What about intermediate cases?
 Most molecules share electrons but “Unequally” due to

the difference in electronegativity and electron affinity.
 This will give rise to a dipole moment and the molecule

becomes polar.
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Copyright 9
Section 8.2
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to in a

molecule to attract shared electrons towards itself.

Linus Pauling simple model of HX molecule
H  H bond energy  X  X bond energy

Exp HX bond energy =
2

the difference (Δ) bond energies: Δ = (HX)actual (HX )expected
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Section 8.2
Electronegativity
If Δ = 0 , H and X have the same elctronegativities.
On the other hand, if X has a greater electronegativity than

H, the shared electron(s) will tend to be closer to the atom X.
the molecule will be polar.
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Section 8.2
Electronegativity
Polar covalent bond or polar bond is a covalent bond with

greater electron density around one of the two atoms. For
example HF.
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Section 8.2
Electronegativity
 The range of electronegativity values is from 4.0 for

fluorine (the most electronegative) to 0.7 for cesium and
francium (the least electronegative).
 Element with high EN have the tendency to attract

electrons than elements with low EN. The F atom has
high EA and high IE, therefore, it has highest EN.
 Halogens (G 7A) have the highest EN.
 Alkali metals (G 1A) have the lowest EN.
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Section 8.2
Electronegativity
The Pauling Electronegativity Values
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Section 8.2
Electronegativity
What is the general trend for electronegativity across rows
and down columns on the periodic table?
The electronegativity increases in going from left to right

across a period because the number of protons increases
which increases the effective nuclear charge.
The electronegativity decreases going down a group because

the size of the atoms increases, the effective nuclear charge
is not as great due to shielding from the core electrons
present.
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Section 8.2
Electronegativity
Classification of bonds by difference in electronegativity
Difference Bond Type

0 to 0.1 Covalent
2 Ionic
0 < and <2 Polar Covalent
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Section 8.2
Electronegativity
Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar

covalent, or covalent: The bond in CsCl; the bond
in H2S; and the NN bond in H2NNH2?
Cs – 0.7 Cl – 3.0 3.0 – 0.7 = 2.3 Ionic
H – 2.1 S – 2.5 2.5 – 2.1 = 0.4 Polar Covalent
N – 3.0 N – 3.0 3.0 – 3.0 = 0 Covalent
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Section 8.2
Electronegativity
Which of the following bonds would be the least

polar yet still be considered polar covalent?
Mg–O C–O O–O Si–O N–O
Which of the following bonds would be the most

polar without being considered ionic?
Mg–O C–O O–O Si–O N–O
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Section 8.3
Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments
Dipole Moment
Property of a molecule whose charge distribution can be
represented by a center of positive charge and a center of
negative charge.
Use an arrow to represent a dipole moment.

 Point to the negative charge center with the tail of the
arrow indicating the positive center of charge.
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Section 8.3
Dipole Moment is away to predict the polarity of covalent
bond and the polarity of the molecules.
Polarity of a bond

The polarity of a bond is dependent upon the difference
electronegativities.

If the bond (covalent) is made from similar atoms, then the
bond is non-polar (i.e. there is no dipole moment) such as
in O2, H2 , Cl2.
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Section 8.3
If the covalent bond is made from different types of atoms,

then the bond is polar and there is a dipole moment for the
bond.
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Section 8.3
Polarity of a molecule

May polyatomic molecules exhibit dipole moment
depending on their structure i.e. arrangement in space.

The net polarity (net dipole moments) of the covalent bonds

in a molecule can be used to predict the molecule polarity.
Look for a “NET DIPOLE”
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Section 8.3
Dipole Moment
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Section 8.3
The carbon dioxide molecule CO2: the opposed bond
polarities cancel out, and the carbon dioxide has no net
dipole moment : Non-polar molecule.
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Section 8.3
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Section 8.3
Which of the following molecules have a dipole moment?

H2O, CO2, SO2, and CH4
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Section 8.3
Q) which one of these has a dipole moment: BF3, CH2Cl2,

IBr?
Q) which of the following molecules has a non-zero DM

( polar molecule)?
a) BeCl2 b) Cl2 c) BF3 d) IBr e) CO2
a) PBr5 b) CCl4 c) BF5 d) XeF2 e) XeF4

Q) which of the following molecules has a zero DM
( nonpolar molecule)?
a) CO b) CH2Cl2 c) SO3 d) NH3 e) SO2
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Section 8.4
Ions: Electron Configurations and Sizes
Stable Compounds
Two nonmetals react: They share electrons to achieve

NGEC (Noble Gas Electron Configurations) and form
covalent bonds.

A nonmetal and a representative group metal react (ionic
compound): The valence orbitals of the metal are
emptied (cation) to achieve NGEC. The valence electron
configuration of the nonmetal (anion) achieves NGEC.

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Section 8.4
Ions
Ionic compounds are always electrically neutral e.g. they

have the same amount of + ve and – ve charges.
Common ions have noble gas configurations.
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Section 8.4
Electron Configurations of Cations of Representative

Elements

A cation is an atom lose electrons so that the cation has a
noble-gas outer electron configuration.

Na [Ne]3s1 Na+ [Ne]
Ca [Ar]4s2 Ca2+ [Ar]
Al [Ne]3s23p1 Al3+ [Ne]

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Section 8.4
Electron Configurations of Cations of Transition Metals

When a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal,
electrons are always removed first from the ns orbital
and then from the (n – 1)d orbitals.

Fe: [Ar] 4s23d6 Fe2+: [Ar] 4s03d6 or [Ar]3d6

Fe3+: [Ar] 4s03d5 or [Ar]3d6

Mn: [Ar] 4s23d5 Mn2+: [Ar] 4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5

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Section 8.4
An anion is atom gains electrons so that anion has a noble-

gas outer electron configuration.
H 1s1 H- 1s2 or [He]
F 1s2 2s2 2p5 F- 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
O 1s2 2s2 2p4 O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
N 1s2 2s2 2p3 N3- 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
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Section 8.4
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Section 8.4
Sizes of Ions

Ionic radius is the radius of a cation or an anion.

When a neutral atom forms an anion, size (or radius) of
anion increases because the additional electron(s)
cause(s) increasing the electron – electron repulsion,
therefore, enlarges the domain of the electron cloud.

When a neutral atom forms a Cation, size (or radius) of
cation decreases because losing electron(s) reduce(s) the
electron – electron repulsion, so that electron cloud shrink.
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Section 8.4
 Cation is always smaller than atom from which it is

formed.
 Anion is always larger than atom from which it is formed.
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Section 8.4
In-group:
From top to bottom, both atomic radius and the ionic

radius increase.
Through period:
1) Cations 1+ > 2+ > 3+

2) Anions 1– < 2– < 3–
3) Cations are smaller than anions.
4) isoelectronic (anions are larger than cations)
Na+ [Ne] < F- [Ne].
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Section 8.4
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Section 8.4
Isoelectronic Ions – contains the same number of electrons
H 1s1 H- 1s2 or [He]

F 1s2 2s2 2p5 F- 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
O 1s2 2s2 2p4 O2- 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
N 1s2 2s2 2p3 N3- 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
Na 1s2 2s2 2p63s1 Na+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p63s2 Mg+2 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
Na+ [Ne]; Al3+ [Ne]; F- [Ne]; O2- [Ne]; N3- [Ne]

Note that (Al3+, O2-, N3-) and (Na+, F-, Ne) have same
electron configurations, which are called isoelectronic
with Ne.
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Section 8.4
Remember:
 Cation is smaller than parent molecule.
 Anion is larger than parent molecule.
 Size increase down in a group (+ve or –ve).
 The larger the mass number the smaller the size for
isoelectronic cations and anions.

Sample exercise 8.4 : Choose the largest ion in each of the
following groups.
a) Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+
b) Ba2+ , Cs+ , I- , Te2-

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Section 8.9
The Localized Electron Bonding Model
Localized Electron Model

• A molecule is composed of atoms that are bound
together by sharing pairs of electrons using the
atomic orbitals of the bound atoms.
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Section 8.9

• Electron pairs are assumed to be localized on a
particular atom or in the space between two
atoms:
 Lone pairs – pairs of electrons localized on
an atom
 Bonding pairs – pairs of electrons found in
the space between the atoms
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Section 8.9
1. Description of valence electron arrangement

(Lewis structure).
2. Prediction of geometry (VSEPR model).
3. Description of atomic orbital types used to
share electrons or hold lone pairs.
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
Lewis Structure
• Shows how valence electrons are arranged
among atoms in a molecule.
• Reflects the central idea that the stability of a
compound relates to noble gas electron
configuration.
 Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol of an

element and one dot for each valence electron in
an atom of the element
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
Lewis Structure
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
Duet Rule
• Hydrogen forms stable molecules where it shares two
electrons.
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
Octet Rule
• Elements form stable molecules when
surrounded by eight electrons.
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
Single Covalent Bond

• A covalent bond in which two atoms share one
pair of electrons.
H–H
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
Double Covalent Bond

• A covalent bond in which two atoms share two
pairs of electrons.
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
Triple Covalent Bond

• A covalent bond in which two atoms share three
pairs of electrons.
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
Steps for Writing Lewis Structures
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
1. Sum the valence electrons from all the atoms.

(Use the periodic table.)
Example: H2O
2 (1 e–) + 6 e– = 8 e– total
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
2. Use a pair of electrons to form a bond between

each pair of bound atoms.
Example: H2O
H O H
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
3. Atoms usually have noble gas configurations.

Arrange the remaining electrons to satisfy the
octet rule (or duet rule for hydrogen).
Examples: H2O, PBr3, and HCN
Br
H O H
Br P Br
H C N
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Section 8.10
Lewis Structures
Concept Check
Draw a Lewis structure for each of the

following molecules:
NF3
CO2
CCl4
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Section 8.11
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
• Boron tends to form compounds in which the
boron atom has fewer than eight electrons
around it (it does not have a complete octet).
BeH2 = 4e– BH3 = 6e–
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Section 8.11
• Some molecules contain an odd number of

electrons (only molecules containing nitrogen G 5A)
have an odd number of electrons.
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Section 8.11
• When it is necessary to exceed the octet rule for
one of several third-row (or higher) elements,
place the extra electrons on the central atom.
SF6 = 48e– AsBr5 = 40e–
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Section 8.11
Concept Check
Draw a Lewis structure for each of the

following molecules:
ICl4- I3- SF4 ClF3
BF3 PCl5 SF6
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Section 8.11
Let’s Review
• C, N, O, and F should always be assumed to
obey the octet rule.
• B and Be often have fewer than 8 electrons
around them in their compounds.
• Second-row elements never exceed the octet
rule.
• Third-row and heavier elements often satisfy the
octet rule but can exceed the octet rule by using
their empty valence d orbitals.
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Section 8.11
Let’s Review
• When writing the Lewis structure for a molecule,
satisfy the octet rule for the atoms first. If
electrons remain after the octet rule has been
satisfied, then place them on the elements
having available d orbitals (elements in Period 3
or beyond).
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Section 8.13
Molecular Structure: The VSEPR Model
VSEPR Model
• VSEPR: Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion.
• The structure (shape or geometry) around a
given atom is determined principally by
minimizing electron pair repulsions.
Electron arrangement vs. Molecular geometry
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Section 8.13
Steps to Apply the VSEPR Model
1. Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule.

2. Count the electron pairs and arrange them in
the way that minimizes repulsion (put the pairs
as far apart as possible.
3. Determine the positions of the atoms from the
way electron pairs are shared (how electrons
are shared between the central atom and
surrounding atoms).
4. Determine the name of the molecular structure
from positions of the atoms.
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Section 8.13
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Section 8.13
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Section 8.13
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Section 8.13
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Section 8.13
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Section 8.13
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Section 8.13
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Section 8.13
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Section 8.13
Concept Check
Determine the shape for each of the following

molecules, and include bond angles:
HCN
PH3
SF4
HCN – linear, 180o
PH3 – trigonal pyramid, 109.5o
(107o) Return to TOC
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Section 8.13
Concept Check
Determine the shape for each of the following

molecules, and include bond angles:
O3
KrF4
O3 – bent, 120o
KrF4 – square planar, 90o, 180o
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Section 8.13
Let’s Think About It
• Draw the Lewis structure for XeF4.

• Does XeF4 contain lone pairs?
• Is the molecule polar or nonpolar overall? Why?
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Section 8.13
Q) According to the VESPR theory, what are the shapes of

SF4, ICl3 PH3, CS2, ClF3, CO32-, SiCl4, BCl3, PF5, CO2, SO42-,
XeO4, O3?

Q) the bond angle in Cl2O is expected to be approximately
A) 90° B) 109.5° C) 120° D) 145°
E) 180°

Q) The F – S – F bond angle in SF6 are
A) 90° and 180° B) 109.5° C) 120° D) 180°
E) 90° and 120°
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Section 8.13
Q) PCl5 has
Nonpolar bonds, and is a nonpolar molecule.
Nonpolar bonds, and is a polar molecule.
polar bonds, and is a nonpolar molecule.
polar bonds, and is a polar molecule.

Q) which of the following molecules is polar?
a) BeCl2 b) Cl2 c) BF3 d) IBr e) CO2
a) PBr5 b) CCl4 c) BF5 d) XeF2 e) XeF4
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Section 8.13
Q) which of the following molecules is a nonpolar molecule?
a) CO b) CH2Cl2 c) SO3 d) NH3 e) SO2

Q) predict the structure and polarity of CS2 ( or SO2)?
a) linear, polar b) linear, nonpolar
c) bent, nonpolar d) bent, polar

Q) which of the following molecule have the same structure?
a) NH2- and H2O b) NH2- and BeH2
c)H2O and BeH2 d) NH2- , H2O and BeH2
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Chapter 8

• What is meant by the term “chemical bond”?

• Why do atoms bond with each other to form

• How do atoms bond with each other to form

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 2

Bonds – Forces that hold group of atoms together

NaCl – attraction is electrostatic since Na+ and Cl– are the

A bond will form if the energy of the aggregate is

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 It is the energy required to break a bond.

Bond Length – The distance where the system

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The Interaction of Two Hydrogen Atoms

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There is no electron transfer.

Electrons are shared between two atoms, positioned

Example: H2, O2, H2O, CO2 etc. Among non-metals only.

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Formed when an atom that easily loses electrons (G 1A

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Ionic Bonds and Coulomb’s Law

The energy of interaction between pair of ions can be

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 Covalent Bonding – electrons are shared equally

What about intermediate cases?

 Most molecules share electrons but “Unequally” due to

 This will give rise to a dipole moment and the molecule

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to in a

H  H bond energy  X  X bond energy

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If Δ = 0 , H and X have the same elctronegativities.

On the other hand, if X has a greater electronegativity than

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Polar covalent bond or polar bond is a covalent bond with

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 The range of electronegativity values is from 4.0 for

 Element with high EN have the tendency to attract

 Halogens (G 7A) have the highest EN.

 Alkali metals (G 1A) have the lowest EN.

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 13

The Pauling Electronegativity Values

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The electronegativity increases in going from left to right

The electronegativity decreases going down a group because

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Classification of bonds by difference in electronegativity

Difference Bond Type

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Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar

Cs – 0.7 Cl – 3.0 3.0 – 0.7 = 2.3 Ionic

H – 2.1 S – 2.5 2.5 – 2.1 = 0.4 Polar Covalent

N – 3.0 N – 3.0 3.0 – 3.0 = 0 Covalent

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 17

Which of the following bonds would be the least

Mg–O C–O O–O Si–O N–O

Which of the following bonds would be the most

Mg–O C–O O–O Si–O N–O

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 18

Use an arrow to represent a dipole moment.