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 2.1 Groups

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Social group: Formed when
two or more people come
together repeatedly.

There must be some level of

permanence and a shared
purpose; group members
usually also have some
characteristics in common.

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 2.2 Types and functions of
groups

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 Characteristics of Social Groups
• Structure
• Common goals
• Voluntary or involuntary membership
• Marks of identity
• Common needs, interest and values
• Specific ways of interacting determined by
rules and regulations
• Established patterns of behavior
• Co-operation to achieve group goals
• Sanctions against undesirable actions
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 Types of groups

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 2.3 Cohesion and social control
in groups

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 Cohesion and social control in groups

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 2.4 Leadership

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Leader: Someone who
directs or guides a group
or institution

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 Types of Leader

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 Types of authority

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 2.5 Institutions

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Institution: “A social institution
consists of all the structural
components of a society, Organizations as
through which the main institutions
concerns and activities are
organized, and social needs
(such as those for order, belief,
and reproduction) are met.”
Social norms as
institutions
Oxford Dictionary of Sociology

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 2.6 Basic functions of
institutions

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 2.6(a) Basic functions of institutions
• Economic
• Social/Recreational
• Political
• Educational
• Religious

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 2.6(b) Characteristics of Institutions
Institution as social norm:
Made up of norms, mores and values
Endure over time
Can be modified
Influence the working of society
Form the basis for the development
of organizations
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 2.6(c) Characteristics of Institutions
Institution as an organization:

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 2.7 Introduction to
government

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 Introduction to government
 All societies need a form of government.

 A government is a group of officials

elected by the citizens to conduct the
affairs of a country.

 The constitutions of the Caribbean

countries provide for a democratic form
of government.
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 2.8 Electoral processes

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 Electoral processes
 All countries which elect governments have a body of
rules for conducting the election process.

 Elections are supervised by a government.

 The goal of the electoral process is free and fair

elections.

 The Chief Electoral Officer performs a number of

actions before, during and after election day in order
to ensure that elections are free and fair.

 Essentials of a free and fair election.

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 2.9 First-past-the-post

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 First-past-the-post
 First-past-the-post is a system of electing
members to sit in parliament.

Under this system, the country is divided into a

number of constituencies.

The political party which wins the overall

majority of the constituencies forms the
government.

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 2.10 Proportional
representation

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 Proportional representation

 This system is used in Guyana.

 In the proportional representation system,

the electorate votes for political parties and
not for candidates.

 This system has some advantages over the

first-past-the-post-system.

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 2.11 How political parties
prepare for elections

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 How political parties prepare for elections
 Preparation for elections requires the contesting
parties and candidates to go through a series of
carefully planned activities including:

• Candidate selection
• Raising campaign funds
• Campaigning
• Preparing and issuing a manifesto
• Holding rallies
• Commissioning polls
• Deciding on campaign issues

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 2.12 Factors that influence the
outcome of elections

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 Factors that influence the outcome of elections

 Elections may produce a single party government, a

coalition government, a government of national
unity, a dead heat or a hung parliament.

 Election results are determined by:

•A political party’s performance in government or
opposition and its election strategies
• The floating voters
• The electoral system used and the reliability of the
electoral process

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 2.13 Factors that influence
voter participation in elections

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 Factors that influence voter participation in elections

Whether or not a voter participates in an election may

be influenced by the voter’s:

•Views of the relevance of the campaign issues

•Commitment to a party
•Attitude towards the governing party
•Appreciation of the franchise
•Interest in the electoral process
 

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 2.14 The executive

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 The three arms of government: the executive
 The structure of government is made up of three branches:
executive, judiciary and legislature.

 Power is divided among the three branches by the principle

of separation of powers.

 Each branch is supposed to act as a check on the other.

 The executive (Cabinet):

• Is the policy making branch of government.
• Comprises the prime minister as chief executive officer and ministers.
• Operates on the principle of collective responsibility.
• Is dependent on the support of the legislature in order to remain in
office.
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 2.15 The judiciary

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 The judiciary

The judiciary:
•Is a system of courts which interprets and administers
the laws of the country.
•Its structure comprises magistrates’ courts, supreme
(high) court, appeal court, and the CCJ/Privy Council
which acts as the final court of appeal.
•Has a system for reviewing sentences.
•Functions with assistance from the police and the
prison system.

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 2.16 Legislature

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 Legislature
The legislature:
•Is the law-making branch of government.
•May be unicameral (one body) or bicameral (two
bodies).
•Is made up of members of the governing party and the
opposition.
•Provides the country with its executive branch of
government.

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 2.17 Systems of government:
constitutional monarchy

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 Constitutional monarchy
 Constitutional monarchy is the most widely used
system in the Commonwealth Caribbean.

 In a constitutional monarchy:
• The governor general represents the monarch as the
head of state and has limited constitutional authority.
• The prime minister is the head of government and
exercises executive authority.
• The prime minister and his cabinet can only remain in
office with the support of the legislature.

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 2.18 Republicanism

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 Republicanism
 In a republic the monarch is replaced as head of state by a native
president.

 There are two types of republics in the Commonwealth Caribbean:

presidential and parliamentary.

 In the presidential republic (Guyana), the president is both head of

state and head of government and exercises executive authority.

 In a parliamentary republic, the president is head of state but has

limited constitutional authority.

 In a parliamentary republic, the prime minister is head of

government and exercises full executive authority.
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 2.19 Functions of governments

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 Functions of governments
The functions of government include:

•Providing social services and infrastructure

•Raising revenue through taxation
•Maintaining law and order
•Developing the country’s natural and human resources
•Managing the economy and creating the conditions
which would promote investment and employment
•Establishing and maintaining relations with other
governments/states
•Protecting the human rights of citizens

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 2.20 The relationship between
citizens and government as
stated in the constitution

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 The relationship between citizens and
government as stated in the
constitution
 The relationship between citizens and government is
defined by the constitution.

 The constitution is all the laws and principles by which

the citizens have agreed to be governed.

 The judiciary protects the citizens’ rights and

freedoms.
 

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 2.21 Essentials of good
governance

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 Essentials of good governance
Good governance exists when:
•The judiciary is allowed to function independently.
•The citizens are allowed to participate in the political
decision-making process.
•Citizens have access to information which influences
government policies and decisions.
•Government ministers and other officials make
decisions in a transparent manner.
•Government ministers and other officials accept and
act as though they are accountable to the public.

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 2.22 The role of the opposition
in ensuring good governance

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 The role of the opposition in ensuring
good governance
The opposition helps to promote good governance by:
•Investigating and publicizing any acts of bad
government
•Ensuring that legislation is properly considered
•Promoting alternative policies
•Introducing bills in parliament

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 2.23 Important institutions in
promoting good governance

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 Important institutions in promoting good
governance
 The Ombudsman investigates citizens’ complaints of
poor administration from government officials and
departments.

 The Auditor General conducts independent audits of

every government department to find out whether
funds have been spent honestly.

 The Contractor General monitors and investigates how

contracts, licences, permits and concessions are
awarded and implemented.
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