The Theory of Evolution

THE THEORY OF
EVOLUTION
THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
Theory in biology postulating that the
various types of plants, animals, and other
living things on earth have their origin in other
preexisting and that the distinguishable
differences are due to modifications in
successive generations. The theory of
evolution is one of the fundamental keystones
of modern biological theory.
• The 19th century English naturalist Charles
Darwin argued that organisms come about
by evolution and he provided a scientific
explanation of how evolution occurs and
why is it that organisms have features –
such as wings, eyes and kidneys – clearly
structured to serve specific functions.
Natural selection was the fundamental
concept in explanation.
THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION
NATURAL SELECTION
Occurs because
individuals having more
useful – traits, such as more
– acute vision or swifter
legs, survive better and
produce more progeny than
individuals with less –
favorable traits.
Natural selection is
sometimes summed up as
“survival of the fittest”.
THE FOUR MECHANISMS
OF EVOLUTION
THE FOUR MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION
1.MUTATION
- Mutation are random
and sometimes result
in phenotypic changes
that are beneficial.
e.g. Green beetles may give rise to mutual

brown offspring.
2. MIGRATION/GENE
FLOW
- Individuals possessing
different alleles may
intermingle.
e.g. A brown beetle may migrate and

bring brown alleles into an exclusively
green allele population .
3. GENETIC DRIFT
- Alleles frequencies
fluctuate unpredictably
from generation to next.
e.g. In a population of green and brown beetles, the green
- Genetic drift can beetles may die due to random events.
sometimes dramatically
effect genetic variation
in large population. Bottleneck effect-massive
population loss causes the
surviving alleles to be ever
expressed in future generations.
4. NATURAL
SELECTION
-Differential success in
reproduction results in
certain alleles being passed
to the next generation in e.g. Brown beetles may evade predation
great proportions. while green beetles continue to be victims.
THREE METHODS OF
SELECTION
THREE METHODS OF SELECTION
B. DISRUPTIVE SELECTION
A. DIRECTIONAL SELECTION
C. STABILIZING SELECTION
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
- Based on a large amount of evidence, most scientist
agree on the following three major points:
I. Earth is about 4.5 billion years old.

II. Organisms have inhabited the Earth for most of its
history.
III.All organisms living today evolve from earlier, simpler
life forms.
THERE ARE FOUR MAJOR AREAS OF EVIDENCE
THAT EXIST FOR EVOLUTION
1. FOSSIL RECORD
- Fossils provide an actual record of
Earth’s past life forms. Change over time
(evolution) can be seen in the fossil
record.
Fossils – remains or traces of a once –

living organism.
• Fossil specimens found in older rocks

are different from these found in newer
rocks.
• Darwin predicted that intermediate
forms between the great groups of
organisms would eventually found.
• Since Darwin’s time, many of these
links have been found.
• The fossil record is far from complete.
Finding fossils is no easy task. Not all
organisms lived in areas where fossils
form.
Paleontologists – Scientist who study

fossils. Example:
Archaeopteryx links birds and
• They can determine the age of fossils reptiles.
using different techniques.
TWO TYPES OF FOSSIL DATING
• RELATIVE DATING
-Used to determine a fossils approximate
age by comparing it to similar rocks and
fossils of known ages.
• ABSOLUTE DATING
- Used to determine a precise age of a
fossil by using radiometric dating to
measure the decay of isotopes, either
within the fossil or more often the rocks
associated with it.
HOW DOES THIS HELP
US?
- When fossils are organized
from oldest to youngest,
orderly patterns of evolution
can be seen.
Example:
Evolution of the horse
2.MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
- Darwin could only study traits that could be seen but molecular genetics support
his theory.
• all living organisms have the same molecular code.
• Many organisms have homologous genes.
Example:
Hox gene directs growth of limbs; the protein hemoglobin carries oxygen.
PREDICTION: a species that descended from a common ancestor in the distant

past should have more differences in the amino acid sequences that shared a
common ancestor more recently.
COMMON ANCESTOR
- Species from which two or more species have diverged.
COMPAIRING PROTIENS
• This prediction was tested by analyzing
the amino acid sequences of
hemoglobin in humans and several
other species.
The data supported the prediction. Humans and gorillas
have fewer differences that do humans and chicken.
COMPAIRING DNA
• Scientists can compare the number of
nucleotide changes in a given gene as well.
• Closely related organisms equal fewer base
differences the same gene.
• Phylogenetic trees branching diagram which
shows how organisms are related through
evolution.
• Cladogram
- A diagram used in which shows
ancestral relations among
organisms. It is based on shared
characteristics
Humans and chimpanzees are 97%

genetically identical.
• This supports the claim that
chimpanzees and human have a
common ancestor.
3. ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE
- focuses on similarities and differences in the body structures of different species. Comparative
anatomy is the field of study dedicated to this.
- Similarities in anatomical structures of different species signify that the two species have a
relatively recent common ancestor.
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF

ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE
1. HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURE
- Structures found in organisms that share a
common ancestry but have since evolve for
different functions.
Ex: The forelimbs of all vertebrates are made
from the same basic group of bones, hooked
up in the same way.
2. ANALOGOUS STRUCTURE
- Similar features of organisms that evolve
independently.
Ex: Wings of fly and the wings of a bird.
3. VESTIGIAL STRUCTURE
- Structures that are reduced in size and
function.
• They are considered to be evidence or an
organisms evolutionary past.
• These structures have no apparent
function. ( evolutionary left overs)
Ex: Human appendix, wisdom teeth, tailbone.
4. EMBRYOLOGY
- early on in development, vertebrate
embryos are strikingly similar.
Each has:
• Tail
• Pharyngeal pouches ( develop into grills in
amphibians and fish)
• Buds that become limbs.
- structures develop at different rates in

different groups of vertabrates, and are called
homologous structures when its all said ad
done.

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THE THEORY OF

e.g. Green beetles may give rise to mutual

e.g. A brown beetle may migrate and

I. Earth is about 4.5 billion years old.

Fossils – remains or traces of a once –

• Fossil specimens found in older rocks

Paleontologists – Scientist who study

PREDICTION: a species that descended from a common ancestor in the distant

Humans and chimpanzees are 97%

THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF

- structures develop at different rates in

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