INDUSTRIAL

INSTRUMENTATION
UNIT 1
 2

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS

Definition of measurement

Measurement is the acquisition of information about a

state or phenomenon (object of measurement) in
the world around us.
This means that a measurement must be descriptive
(observable) with regard to that state or object we are
measuring: there must be a relationship between the object
of measurement and the measurement result.
Measurement – Measurement in industrial manufacturing and
processing Is to aid in economics of industrial operations by
improving the quality of product or efficiency of production.
Important Factors
 Quality : Maintain process operating conditions
 Quantity: Maintain process yields
Measurement
 Direct Measurement – Example- Lathe machine, bacteria count
 Indirect Measurement – Measurement of temperature in milk
pasteurizer. Purpose of pasteurizer operation is to eliminate
bacteria.
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Definition of instrumentation

In order to guarantee the objectivity of a measurement, we

must use artifacts (tools or instruments). The task of these
instruments is to convert the state or phenomenon into a
different state or phenomenon that cannot be misinterpreted by
an observer.

The field of designing measurement instruments and systems

is called instrumentation.
Instrumentation systems must guarantee the required
descriptiveness, the selectivity, and the objectivity of the
measurement.
• Instrumentation is a technology of measurement which serves
sciences, engineering, medicine and etc.

• Measurement is the process of determining the amount,

degree or capacity by comparison with the accepted
standards of the system units being used.

• Instrument is a device for determining the value or

magnitude of a quantity or variable.
 Elements of Instrument
A measuring instrument is a device for determining the value of a
quantity or condition
Functions of an Instrument:
 Transmitting: Instrument is intended to convey information
concerning the measured quantity over some distance to a
remote point. Eg Telephone.
 Signalling: Instrument indicates the general value or range of
values of its measured quantity. Eg Grocers Scale
 Registering: Instrument merely indicates , by numbers or some
other discrete increments, the value of some quantity. Eg Cash
register, water meter.
 Indicating: Instrument provides some kind of calibrated scale
and pointer Eg Clock
 Recording: Instrument makes a written record, usually on paper
the value of measured quantity against some other variable.
 Parts of an Instrument

Secondary Manipulating
Primary Functional
Element Element
Element Element
 Parts of an Instrument
• Primary Element: Part of an instrument that utilizes energy
from the measured medium to produce a condition
representing the value of measured variable. Thermometer
bulb is the primary element as it converts energy in the form
of heat into a fluid displacement, which is proportional to
temperature at bulb.
• Secondary Element: Condition produced by the primary
element into a condition useful to the function of instrument.
Secondary element is Bourdon tube or pressure spring which
converts fluid displacement into displacement of link.
• Manipulation Element: Performs the given operation on
conditions produced by secondary element. Motion of
pressure spring is modified by cam/ scale in order to correct
for linearity.
 Parts of an Instrument
• Functioning Element: Denotes part of instrument used for
transmitting, signaling, registering, indicating or recording.
• Static characteristics:
Instrument used to measure a condition not varying with time.
Characteristics are:
(i)Accuracy (iv) Static error
(ii) Reproducibility (v) Drift
(iii) Sensitivity (vi) Dead zone
Quantitities to the left are desirable and opposite qualities are
undesirable.
In indicating or recording instruments the value of the measured
quantity is indicated on a scale or chart by a pointer. The
highest point is ‘b’ units and the lowest point is ‘a’ units and
calibration is continuous between these two points.
Instrument Span is given by
Span = b-a
Ex- Pyrometer calibrated 0 to 1000 degrees and span is 1000
degrees.
Thermometer calibrated 200 to 350 the range is 200 to 350 and
span is ( 350-200= 150).
Accuracy : Accurate to within x percent. Accuracy is based on
instrument range and instrument reading instead of
instrument span.
Ex- Pyrometer calibrated 1000 to 1800 degrees and accuracy is
within 0.5 % . The accuracy of pyrometer is 05 +/- % times
( 1800-1000) = +/- 4%
Static error: Difference between true value of a quantity not
changing with time and value indicated by the instrument.
The static error is expressed as ‘+x ‘units ‘- x’ units. For static
error in units:
True Value + static error = Instrument Reading
Static Correction of an instrument reading is given as:
True Value = Instrument Reading + Static Correction
Static error and Static correction are related as:
Static Correction = - Static Error
 Accuracy

Accuracy is usually expressed in engineering units or as a

percentage of the sensor range, for example:
 Thermocouple temperature sensor with accuracy of  1.5 K.
 Orifice flow meters with accuracy of 3% of maximum flow
range
 Reproducibility
Reproducibility: The closeness of agreement among a number of
consecutive measurements of the same variable (value) under the
same operating conditions over a period of time, approaching from
both directions.
• The period of time is “long”, so that changes occurring over longer
times of plant operation are included.
• Reproducibility includes hysteresis, dead band, drift and
repeatability.
• Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift i.e
instrument calibration does not gradually shift over a long period
of time.
• Whole instrument calibration may gradually shift by the same
amount. This is called as zero drift and may be because of slippage.
• Span drift : Gradual change in which the calibration from zero
upward changes a proportional amount caused by gradual spring
gradient.
• Drift occurs in thermocouples and resistance thermometer
elements because of contamination of metal and changes in
metallurgical or atomic structure. Drift occurs in orifice flow
meters because of weir and erosion of orifice plate.
• Sensitivity: Smallest change in value of measured variable to
which an instrument responds, that Is the instrument has
dead zone (or )
Instrument produces a given deflection for a given change in
value of a measured quantity, i.e instrument has a given span.
• Dead zone: Dead zone is the largest range of values of a
measured variable to which the instrument does not respond.
This is sometimes called dead spot and hysteresis.
 Dynamic Characteristics
• Dynamic – measuring a varying process condition.
• Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the
measured variables due to such things as mass, thermal
capacitance, fluid capacitance or electrical capacitance.
• The three most common variations in the measured quantity:
 Step change-in which the primary element is subjected to an
instantaneous and finite change in measured variable.
 Linear change-in which the primary element is following the
measured variable, changing linearly with time.
 Sinusoidal change-in which the primary element follows a
measured variable, the magnitude of which changes in
accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.
 Dynamic Characteristics
• The dynamic performance characteristics of an
instrument are:
– Speed of response- The rapidity with which an instrument
responds changes in measured quantity.
– Dynamic error-The difference between the true and
measured value with no static error.
– Lag – delay in the response of an instrument to changes in
the measured variable.
– Fidelity – the degree to which an instrument indicates the
changes in the measured variable without dynamic error
(faithful reproduction).
 Dynamic Response of First Order Type
Instruments
• A temperature measuring device such as thermometer has a
bulb or other primary element which is mainly thermal
capacitance surrounded by heat transfer film which is
resistance.
• Dynamic response of first order type instruments to a step
change is represented by :
d
T   F
dt

 =value indicated by instrument

 F=final steady value
t =time
T= time constant
Cross section of a thermometer bulb
 Dynamic Response of First Order Type
Instruments
• This linear first order differential equation has a solution as
 t
 1 e T
F
which represents single exponential response.
• If a thermometer is inserted in a liquid whose temperature
suddenly increases then dθ/dt will be the rate at which
the output changes.
• In one time constant, the response achieves 63.2% of its final
value.
• The time constant is the time required to indicate 63.2% of
complete change.
• Dynamic response of these instruments to a linear change can
be represented by
T d +  = Kt
dt
• K is the rate of change of true value of measured variable and
last term Kt is actual measured variable changing linearly with
time.  = t/ -1+e-t/
KT
• A thermometer having a time constant of 1 min will ultimately
lag behind a linear change by 1min.
• The dynamic error is given by value of KT.
• Thermometer with 1 min lag and linear change of 50
temperature per min, the dynamic error is 50.
• Dynamic error increases directly with the rate of change of measured variable
 Dynamic response to sinusoidal change
• T d +  = A sinωt
dt
q=value indicated by instrument
t = time
T = time constant
A = amplitude of cycle of measured variable
ω = circular frequency of cycle
F= arctan ωT= lag angle

 1
 sin(t   )
A 1   2 2
 Expansion Thermometers
• Thermometers measure temperature either mechanically or
electrically.
• Most mechanical thermometers are based on the ability of a
substance to expand when heated or contract when cooled.
• One type of mechanical thermometer, the liquid in glass
thermometer, includes maximum thermometers, which use
the liquid mercury, and minimum thermometers, which
contain a liquid of low density, such as alcohol.
• 0OC ----- 2730K to 3730K
• 0OF------0OF to 3200F
• 0OC------O0C to 1000C
• 0OR------491OR to 671OR
Maximum Thermometer

Minimum Thermometer
 Mercury in Glass Thermometer
Principle : It utilizes volumetric expansion of Hg with
temperature as a means of indicating temperature.
Thermometer has a bulb formed by a glass envelope which
contains mercury, enclosed in a metal well. As heat is
transferred through the well and metal stem into Hg, the Hg
expands pushing the column of Hg higher in the capillary. Scale
calibration of Hg thermometer is not exactly linear.
• Factors to be considered in calibration:
 Glass envelope of thermometer expands and contracts with
temperature changes. This changes the volume inside the thermometer.
 Coefficient of cubical expansion for Hg varies with temperature.
 Space above the mercury in thermometer bore is sometimes filled with
dry N2 under pressure when the Hg column rises the gas pressure
increases causing elastic expansion of thermometer wall and
compression of Hg volume.
• Gradual change in volume of thermometer , due to aging over
long period of time.
Construction:
• Hg is contained in bulb formed by glass envelope this is contained
in a metal well. A metal scale is mounted behind the upper end of
the thermometer and a glass covers the scale. This provides
complete protection for the thermometer.
• Thermal well is provided for the purpose of preventing leakage.
The thermo well protects the instrument from the pressure, flow-
induced forces, and chemical effects of the process fluid.
• The glass of the thermometer is shaped as to magnify the
apparent width of the thread of Hg.
• Temperature range -380F to 9500F
• Accuracy is +/- 1% of span
• To achieve the accuracy the thermometer bulb
should be installed in such a away that
 Bulb temperature should be in equilibrium with its
surroundings.
 Speed of flow of surrounding medium past the bulb is
sufficient to provide rapid heat transfer.
 It should be immersed to a sufficient length. At the heat
loss along the thermal well to the surrounding is minimum.
Otherwise it will result in immersion error.
 The temperature of the scale and surrounding should be
near room temperature so that error due to expansion and
contraction of the thermometer bore and calibrated scale
are small.
 Bimetallic Thermometer
Three fundamental principles are:
All the metals expand or contract with change in
temperature
The temperature coefficient of expansion or contraction is
not the same for all the metals
The difference in the expansion rates is used to produce a
deflection proportional to temperature change
Constructed by bonding two different metals such that they
cannot move relative to each other
• With change in temperature, the two metallic strips changes
their lengths at different rates

Bimetallic strip bends towards the side whose

Metal has a lower thermal expansion coefficient when there is
increase in temperature
Metal has a higher thermal expansion coefficient when there is
decrease in temperature
The deflection of the free end is
directly proportional to temperature change
directly proportional to square of the length of the strip
• Deflection is small and hence sensitivity is low for these
strips
• To increase the sensitivity, length of the strip should be
increased
• Therefore, bimetallic strips are manufactured in the shape of
spiral or helix

SPIRAL SHAPE HELIX SHAPE

• The bimetallic strip can be wound as a helix and will twist
when heated .Twisting action can be used to drive a pointer
over a calibrated temp scale.
• The temp sensors are low cost and have accuracy ranges of
between 2-5% and are mostly used for local readings.
• They are not suitable for providing a continuous output
measurement.
• Advantages :
(i) Simple (ii) Robust (iii) Inexpensive (iv) Power source not
required
• Disadvantages are:
Used over a limited range of temperature
 Pressure Spring Thermometer

Spiral Type Bourdon

Tube
• The liquid expansion thermometer uses the cubical expansion
of liquid, generally Hg to indicate temperature.
• The gas expansion thermometer operates at constant volume,
the pressure of gas being proportional to temperature.
• The vapor actuated thermometer is operated by vapor
pressure of liquid.
Construction:
• A metal bulb contains the thermometer fluid a liquid, gas or
liquid vapor and is inserted at point at which temperature is
to be measured.
• The bulb comes to temperature equilibrium with its
surroundings, thereby developing a given pressure or
displacement of fluid.
• The vapor actuated thermometer is operated by vapor
pressure of liquid.
Construction:
• A metal bulb contains the thermometer fluid a liquid, gas,
liquid-vapor and is inserted the point at which the
temperature is to be measured.
• The bulb comes to a temperature equilibrium with its
surroundings, developing a given pressure or displacement of
fluid.
• A metal capillary is connected to the bulb and transmits the
pressure at the bulb to receiving element.
• Receiving element is in form of pressure spring and is used to
convert pressure or displacement of fluid in thermometer
bulb into motion.
• This is in turn connected to pointer.
Thermometer bulb and well
• The bulb is composed of a cylindrical piece of metal tubing
closed at one end and with the capillary and extension neck
inserted at other end.
• Size of the bulb varies with (i) type of filling media (ii)
temperature span of the instrument (iii) length of capillary
tubing.
• The extension neck is made of small size tubing and its
purpose is to protect capillary from damage when the bulb is
being installed and removed.
• A thermal well may be used with the thermometer bulb
where temperature of fluids under pressure is to be
measured, where extra mechanical strength is required.
• Capillary material of construction is copper or steel for all Hg
filled systems.
Thermometer Armor & Capillary
• For protecting against damage or against corrosion the capillary is
enclosed in armor tubing.
• Armor may be spiral wound, bronze, steel, stainless steel, rubber or
plastic material.
Receiving Element ( Bourdon tube or Pressure spring):
The purpose is to convert the fluid pressure or volumetric expansion to
a motion which can be amplified by mechanical linkage to operate a
pointer or pen.
Bourdon Tube:
 Metal tube with relatively thin wall bent in the form of a circle.
 When pressure is applied to inside of tube the cross section deflects
towards a more circular form, this causes the tube to straighten,
thus moving the tip of the tube along an arc.
 Material of Construction: bronze, beryllium, copper, steel , stainless
steel
Bourdon tube
 Static Accuracy of Thermometers
Sources of static error in industrial pressure thermometers are:
 Ambient temperature Effect
 Head Effect
 Barometric Effect
 Imersion Effect
 Radiation Effect
• The ambient temperature effect for liquid expansion thermometer is
given by
ET = (VCTC+ VETE)/VB
ET= Total ambient error 0F
VC= Volume of liquid in Capillary
TC= Temperature of liquid in Capillary 0F
VB = Volume of liquid in bulb
VE = Volume of liquid in pressure spring
TE= Temperature of liquid in pressure spring
Methods for ambient Temperature Compensation :
• Compensation of a liquid expansion thermometer for ambient temperature
changes is afforded by using a bimetallic strip or a second receiving element.
If this is properly constructed, ambient temperature changes at the receiving
element will result in no changes of indication at the thermometer.
• Volumetric compensation: consists of using a small wire inside the capillary
tubing .
 The wire and capillary are made of different materials. When
temperature increases capillary, wire and Hg expand.
 If the expansion of capillary is more than that of wire, Hg expansion can
be compensated so that net volumetric expansion is negligible.
• Second Thermal System:
 Either Hg filled or gas filled is used with capillary tubing in both
measuring and compensating system.
 Only measuring system has bulb & compensating system ends with
capillary tubing.
 Changes in ambient temperature along the capillary or at the receiving
are cancelled by mechanically connecting the receiving elements in
opposition.
Ambient Temperature Compensation
Ambient Temperature Ambient Temperature
Compensation at Pressure Spring Compensation at Capillary
Filled Thermal System and Bulb Thermometers
  Ambient error is reduced by making volume of the bulb as
large as possible and reducing the volume of the capillary
& receiving element to a minimum.
 Complete compensation is provided by using a gas filled
element and capillary.

Vapor Actuated Pressure Thermometer:

 It depends only on the temperature at the surface of the
liquid. Changes in ambient temperature can cause
expansion and contraction of other parts and has no
effect on liquid and gas expansion.
Head Effect:
 Caused by placing the thermometer bulb at a considerably
higher or lower position than the receiving element.
 Caused due to the density difference between the liquid and
vapor phase of the fluid used.
 If bulb is located at 10 ft above the receiving element, by
distance ‘d’ the equivalent pressure at the receiving element of
a Hg thermometer is 10 ft of Hg or 59 psi.
 Since Hg system is filled at say 1000 psi the error caused in the
reading of the instrument is small when the bulb is placed
below the instrument level, the head effect is reversed.
 Head effect in gas expansion thermometers is negligible.
 Head effect in vapor actuated thermometer is sometimes
appreciable since the pressure in the thermal system is low and
pressure effect of head is of a appreciable magnitude.
 Head effect is accounted for calibrating the instrument with the
bulb at a height above the receiving element.
Barometric Effect:
 It is the error in instrument reading due to changes in
barometric pressure. This error occurs because pressure
spring deflection is proportional to instrument and
instrument pressure.
 Hg expansion thermometer operates at 1000 psi ( high
pressure). A change in barometric pressure of +/- 1 psi may
occur. Therefore effect of barometric pressure changes is +/-
0.1% and therefore it is negligible.
 In gas expansion initial pressure is high and operating
pressure is even higher therefore effect of barometric
pressure changes can be neglected.
 Vapor actuated thermometer operates in the range 100 to
200 psi or even lower and barometric pressure changes may
cause small error and cannot be neglected.
Immersion Effect:
 Results from conduction of heat along the bulb and thermal
well, thereby reducing the temperature at the bulb and
causing error.
 Heat is conducted along the bulb, extension neck and
thermal well. If temperature drop exists with this flow of
heat, temperature indicated by thermometer is lower than
actual temperature.
 Bulb and well should be immersed far enough and exposed
head should be insulated.
 Vapor actuated thermometer is not so dependent on
immersion as Hg and gas thermometers.
Radiation Effect:
 Exists in the measurement of gas and air temperature
because of the ability of the thermometer bulb to see solid
bodies whose temperature is lower or higher than gas.
• This error may be 40-50%.
• A radiation shied constructed around the thermometer bulb is
effective in preventing radiation error.
• If the duct wall is at a higher temperature than the gas then
the thermometer may read high.
• Gases flow between thermometer bulb and shied. Bulb gains
heat by convection and conduction from gas but loss of heat
by radiation to the walls.
• When shield Is used around thermometer bulb the heat loss
by radiation is reduced.
 Response of Thermometers
Response of pressure thermometer is determined by heat transfer
characteristics of thermometer bulb, well & by the characteristics
of the fluid.
Characteristics of bulb & well that influence response are:
 Thermal Capacitance
 Thermal Conductivity
 Surface area per unit mass
Fluid Characteristics are:
 Film coefficients of heat transfer
 Mass velocity
 Thermal Capacitance
 Thermal Conductivity
Response of thermometer depends wholly on size of the bulb, its
area and method of installation.
Thermometer in agitated liquid the time constant is 0.1min.
Response is first order k depends on thermal diffusivity of liquid.
and
 
 Cp
Dip Effect:

• This is caused by sudden expansion of the metal thermometer

bulb, which takes place before the expansion of the fluid
because heat arrives first at thermometer bulb. Bulb expands
and Hg level comes down.
• Temporarily this causes a contraction of fluid volume, causing
the instrument to indicate reversed direction of temperature
changes.
•This effect is more noticeable in Hg thermometers.
•Lag caused is 0.01 min magnitude.
•Dip effect can be neglected in gas and vapor expansion
thermometer.
Bare Thermometer bulb in
moving air:
• Time constant of the
response is larger than that in
the moving liquid.
• Response in a flowing gas is
inversely proportional to
inverse of thermal capacity.
• Response is therefore faster
when thermal capacity is
small.
• Lag in moving air is not only
larger but also more
dependent on the speed of
the fluid past the bulb.
Cross Ambient Effect:
• Causes an additional lag in response and exists only in the
vapor actuated pressure thermometer.
• One bulb is at 100F( higher than the ambient)and another at
50F( lower)
• When bulb is at a higher temperature than ambient the
receiving element and capillary are filled with liquid and the
vapor space is in the bulb.
• When bulb is at a lower temperature than ambient the vapor
space is in the receiving element and capillary.
• Suppose the temperature range of the instrument is 0-100F
when bulb temperature drops below ambient temperature,
vapor condenses into liquid at the bulb.
• This change of position of vapor space and liquid space takes
place automatically and requires time to occur. So
considerable lag in response is caused.
• Vapor actuated thermometer should therefore be not be used in cross
ambient ranges if high speed of response is needed.
Thermal well:
• The second order response is apparently second order.
• This results in lag of measured temperature behind the actual
temperature.
• Second order is due to mass of well being thermally separated from
mass of tube.
• Heat is transferred between the bulb and tube by conduction ,
convection & radiation.
• The actual metal to metal contact between the bulb & well is small.
• Therefore Heat transfer by conduction is less.
• This contact may be increasing by filling the space by metal powder,
graphite, oil, Hg or thin sheet metal
• The speed of response is increased by about 10% or more. These
reduce the thermal resistance between bulb and well and second
order effect can be avoided.