Control System and Instrumentation

Temperature Measurement
 Introduction
Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate classes according to the physical principle on which they operate.

The main principles used are:

 Varying Resistance Devices

 Sensitivity of semiconductor device

 The thermoelectric effect

 Thermal expansion

 Electromagnetic radiation

 Acoustic thermometry

 Color change
 Varying Resistance Devices
 Varying resistance devices rely on the physical principle of the variation of resistance with temperature.

 The devices are known as either resistance thermometers or thermistors according to whether the material used for their

construction is a metal or a semiconductor, and both are common measuring devices.

 Varying Resistance Devices
 The normal method of measuring resistance is to

use a d.c. bridge.

 The excitation voltage of the bridge has to be

chosen very carefully because, although a high

value is desirable for achieving high measurement

sensitivity, the self-heating effect of high currents

flowing in the temperature transducer creates an

error by increasing the temperature of the device

and so changing the resistance value.

 Varying Resistance Devices
 Resistance thermometers, which are alternatively known as resistance

temperature devices (or RTDs), rely on the principle that the resistance of a

metal varies with temperature according to the relationship:


R  Ro 1  a1T  a2T 2    anT n 
 If the square and higher order terms are neglected, the equation

becomes:

R  Ro 1 a1T 
 This equation is approximately true over a limited temperature range for

some metals, notably platinum, copper and nickel

 Varying Resistance Devices
 Platinum has the most linear resistance–temperature characteristic, and it also has good

chemical inertness, making it the preferred type of resistance thermometer in most

applications. Its resistance–temperature relationship is linear within ±0.4% over the

temperature range between -200°C and +40°C.

 Platinum thermometers are made in two forms, as a coil wound on a mandrel and as a

film deposited on a ceramic substrate. The nominal resistance at 0°C is typically 100Ω or

1000 Ω. Sensitivity is 0.385 Ω /°C (100Ω type) or 3.85Ω/°C (1000 Ωtype). A high nominal

resistance is advantageous in terms of higher measurement sensitivity, and the

resistance of connecting leads has less effect on measurement accuracy. However, cost

goes up as the nominal resistance increases.

 Thermistors
 Thermistors are manufactured from beads of semiconductor material prepared from

oxides of the iron group of metals such as chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and

nickel. Normally, thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient, i.e. the resistance

decreases as the temperature increases.

 The major advantages of thermistors are their relatively low cost and their small size.

This size advantage means that the time constant of thermistors is small, although the

size reduction also decreases its heat dissipation capability and so makes the self heating

effect greater.

 In consequence, thermistors have to be operated at generally lower current levels than

resistance thermometers and so the measurement sensitivity is less.

 Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)
 A thermocouple is a device consisting of two different conductors (usually metal alloys) that produce a voltage proportional to a

temperature difference between either end of the pair of conductors.

 Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert a heat

gradient into electricity. They are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard connectors, and can measure a wide range

of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are self powered and require no

external form of excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy and system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C)

can be difficult to achieve.

Metal A

T T 0 10
H r

Metal B
 Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)
 Thermocouples are manufactured from various combinations of

the base metals copper and iron, the base-metal alloys of alumel

(Ni/Mn/Al/Si), chromel (Ni/Cr), constantan (Cu/Ni). Each

standard combination is known by an internationally recognized

type letter, for instance type K is chromel–alumel.

 Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)
 Tables for a range of standard thermocouples are available. In these tables, a range of temperatures is given in the left-hand column and

the e.m.f. output for each standard type of thermocouple is given in the columns to the right. The tables are given with reference to a

base temperature of zero °C

 Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)
 The e.m.f.– temperature characteristics for some of these

standard thermocouples show reasonable linearity over at least

part of their temperature-measuring ranges.

 Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)
 Thermocouples measure the temperature difference between two points, not absolute temperature. To measure a single

temperature one of the junctions—normally the cold junction—is maintained at a known reference temperature, and the other

junction is at the temperature to be sensed.

 Having a junction of known temperature, while useful for laboratory calibration, is not convenient for most measurement and

control applications. Instead, they incorporate an artificial cold junction using a thermally sensitive device such as a thermistor or

diode to measure the temperature of the input connections at the instrument, with special care being taken to minimize any

temperature gradient between terminals. Hence, the voltage from a known cold junction can be simulated, and the appropriate

correction applied. This is known as cold junction compensation. Some integrated circuits are designed to output a compensated

voltage based on thermocouple type and cold junction temperature.

 Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)
 For analysis purposes, it is useful to represent the thermocouple by its

equivalent electrical circuit. The e.m.f. generated at the point where the

different wires are connected together is represented by a voltage source,

E1, and the point is known as the hot junction. The temperature of the hot

junction is customarily shown as T on the diagram.

h

 The e.m.f. generated at the hot junction is measured at the open ends of the

thermocouple, which is known as the reference junction.

T
r
 Example
 If the e.m.f. output measured from a chromel–constantan (Type E ) thermocouple is 13.419mV

with the reference junction at 0°C, what is the temperature at the hot junction?
 Example 1: Solution
 If the e.m.f. output measured from a chromel–constantan (Type E ) thermocouple is 13.419mV

with the reference junction at 0°C, what is the temperature at the hot junction?

 The appropriate column in the tables shows that this corresponds to a hot junction temperature

of 200°C.
 Example 1: Solution
 If the e.m.f. output measured from a chromel–constantan (Type E )hermocouple is 13.419mV

with the reference junction at 0°C, what is the temperature at the hot junction?

 The appropriate column in the tables shows that this corresponds to a hot junction temperature

of 200°C.
 Example 2
 If the measured output e.m.f. for a chromel–constantan thermocouple (reference junction at

0°C) was 10.65 mV, what is the temperature at the hot junction?
 Example 2. Solution
 If the measured output e.m.f. for a chromel–constantan thermocouple (reference junction at 0°C) was 10.65 mV, what is the temperature at

the hot junction?

 It is necessary to carry out linear interpolation between the temperature of 160°C corresponding to an e.m.f. of 10.501mV shown in the tables

and he temperature of 170°C corresponding to an e.m.f. of 11.222 mV. This interpolation procedure gives an indicated hot junction

temperature of 162°C.
Non-zero reference junction temperature
 Maintaining the reference junction at 0°C is not a straightforward matter, particularly if the environmental temperature around the

measurement system is relatively hot. In consequence, it is common practice in many practical applications of thermocouples to maintain the

reference junction at a non-zero temperature by putting it into a controlled environment maintained by an electrical heating element.

 In order to still be able to apply thermocouple tables, correction then has to be made for this non-zero reference junction temperature using

a second thermoelectric law known as the law of intermediate temperatures. This states that:

where:

E(Th, T0) is the e.m.f. with the junctions at temperatures Th and T0,

E(Th,Tr) is the e.m.f. with the junctions at temperatures Th and Tr, and E(Tr,T0) is the e.m.f. with the junctions at temperatures Tr and T0,

Th is the hot junction measured temperature, T0 is 0°C and Tr is the non-zero reference junction temperature that is somewhere between T0

and Th.
 Example 3
 Suppose that the reference junction of a chromel–constantan

thermocouple is maintained at a temperature of 80°C and the

output e.m.f. measured is 40.102mV when the hot junction is

immersed in a fluid. What is the temperature of the hot fluid?

 Example 3. Solution
 Suppose that the reference junction of a chromel–constantan

thermocouple is maintained at a temperature of 80°C and the output

e.m.f. measured is 40.102mV when the hot junction is immersed in a

fluid. What is the temperature of the hot fluid?

Tr = 80°C and E(Th,Tr) = 40.102mV

 From the tables, E(Tr,T0) = 4.983mV. Now applying the equation above:

E(Th,T0) = 40.102 + 4.983 = 45.085mV

Again referring to the tables, this indicates a fluid temperature of 600°C.

 Example 4
 In a particular industrial situation, a chromel–alumel thermocouple with chromel–alumel extension wires is used to measure the

temperature of a fluid. In connecting up this measurement system, the instrumentation engineer has inadvertently interchanged

the extension wires from the thermocouple. The ends of the extension wires are held at a reference temperature of 0°C and the

output e.m.f. measured is 12.1mV. If the junction between the thermocouple and extension wires is at a temperature of 40°C,

what temperature of fluid is indicated and what is the true fluid temperature?

Metal C

Metal A Alumel

0 °C
T T
H L 40 °C

Metal B
15 Chromel
15

0 10
0 10
 Example 4. Solution
 Chromel–alumel thermocouple with chromel–alumel extension wires

Reference temperature: 0°C

Measured output e.m.f.: 12.1mV.

Junction temperature of the thermocouple and extension wires : 40°C

what temperature of fluid is indicated and what is the true fluid

temperature?

By interpolation, the temperature giving an e.m.f. output of 12.1mV for a K type

thermocouple is 297.4°C. This is the indicated temperature.

Alumel

0 °C

40 °C

T =?
H 15
Chromel

0 10
 Example 4. Solution
Summing e.m.f.s around the loop:

Interpolating from the thermocouple tables, this indicates that the true fluid temperature is 374.5°C.

E Alumel
3
Chromel
0 °C
E
1 40 °C

T =?
H Alumel 15 Chromel

E
0 10
2
 Electromagentic
Radiation methods
 Pyrometers
• Pyrometric methods of temperature
measurement use the electromagnetic
radiation that is emitted from a material.
The emitted radiation is proportional to
the temperature.
• Any object with a temperature above
absolute zero will radiate
electromagnetic energy.
• Infrared pyrometers measure the
amount of energy radiated from an object
in order to determine its temperature.
• There are a number of different types of
infrared pyrometers:
• - Total radiation
• - Single wavelength
• - Dual wavelength
Optical methods
 Optical pyrometers
 The optical pyrometer contains a heated tungsten filament within an optical system. The current in the filament is

increased until its color is the same as the hot body: under these conditions the filament apparently disappears when

viewed against the background of the hot body.

 Optical pyrometers
 The optical pyrometer, is designed to measure temperatures where the peak radiation emission is in the red part of the

visible spectrum, i.e. where the measured body glows a certain shade of red according to the temperature. This limits the

instrument to measuring temperatures above 600°C.

 Optical pyrometers
 The inherent measurement inaccuracy of an optical pyrometer is ±5°C. However, in addition to this error, there can be a further operator-

induced error of ± 10°C arising out of the difficulty in judging the moment when the filament ‘just’ disappears. Measurement accuracy can be

improved somewhat by employing an optical filter within the instrument that passes a narrow band of frequencies of wavelength around 0.65

μm corresponding to the red part of the visible spectrum. This also extends the upper temperature measurable from 5000°C in unfiltered

instruments up to 10 000°C.
Thermal expansion
methods
 Thermal expansion methods
 Thermal expansion methods make use of the

fact that the dimensions of all substances,

whether solids, liquids or gases, change with

temperature.

 Instruments operating on this physical principle

include the liquid-in-glass thermometer, the

bimetallic thermometer and the pressure

thermometer
 Liquid-in-glass thermometers
 The liquid-in-glass thermometer is a well-known temperature-measuring instrument that is used in a wide

range of applications. The fluid used is usually either mercury or colored alcohol, and this is contained within

a bulb and capillary tube.

 As the temperature rises, the fluid expands along the capillary tube and the meniscus level is read against a

calibrated scale etched on the tube. The process of estimating the position of the curved meniscus of the

fluid against the scale introduces some error into the measurement process and a measurement inaccuracy

less than ±1% of full-scale reading is hard to achieve.

 Industrial versions of the liquid-in-glass thermometer are normally used to measure temperature in the range

between -200°C up to 1500°C.

 Bimetallic thermometer
 The bimetallic principle is based on the fact that different metals have different coefficient of thermal expansion.

 If two strips of different metals are bonded together, any temperature change will cause the strip to bend, as this is the only way in which the

differing rates of change of length of each metal in the bonded strip can be accommodated.
 Bimetallic thermometer
 If the magnitude of bending is measured, the bimetallic device becomes a thermometer. For

such purposes, the strip is often arranged in a spiral or helical configuration, as this gives a

relatively large displacement of the free end for any given temperature change.

 The measurement sensitivity is increased further by choosing the pair of materials carefully

such that the degree of bending is maximized, with Invar (a nickel–steel alloy) or brass being

commonly used.

 The system used to measure the displacement of the strip must be carefully designed. Very

little resistance must be offered to the end of the strip, otherwise the spiral or helix will

distort and cause a false reading in the measurement of the displacement.

 Bimetallic thermometer
 Bimetallic thermometers are used to measure temperatures

between -75°C and +1500°C. The inaccuracy of the best instruments

can be as low as ±0.5% but such devices are quite expensive.

 Many instrument applications do not require this degree of accuracy

in temperature measurements, and in such cases much cheaper

bimetallic thermometers with substantially inferior accuracy

specifications are used.

 Bimetallic thermometer
 The mechanical action from the bimetallic strip can be used to activate a switching mechanism for getting electrical output. In the bimetallic

thermostat, this is used as a switch in control applications