Temperature

Sensors and
Actuators
Sensors and Actuators
 Temperature Sensors
 Actuators
 Temperature Sensors
 Types of Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouple
 Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD)
 Thermistors
 Semiconductor-based Temperature
sensors
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouple
 A thermocouple is a common type of temperature sensors,
which is constructed by combining the end of two different
metals.
 The connecting end is named the “HOT JUNCTION”. The
other end is introduced as the “COLD JUNCTION” or “COLD
END”. The cold junction is created in the last part of the
thermocouple material.
 If the temperature of the cold junction and hot junction
change, a small voltage is produced. This voltage is the EMF
(electro-motive force) and can be measured and utilized to
display temperature variations.
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouple
 The Thermocouple is the most frequent type of all the
temperature sensors.
 Thermocouples are common according to their user-
friendliness, simplicity, and their speed of response to
modification in temperature.
 Thermocouples also have the greatest temperature level
of all the temperature sensors, from lower than -200oC to
more than 2000oC.
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouple
 Thermocouples are existing in several compositions of
metals or calibrations.
 The most usual kinds of thermocouples are base metal
thermocouples; however, noble metal thermocouples are
utilized in high-temperature applications.
 Each calibration has a specific temperature level and
environment, while the maximum temperature modifies
with the diameter of the wire employed in the
thermocouple.
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouple
 Thermocouples fundamentally includes two different
metals, such as constantan and copper, that are
crimped together.
 One junction is maintained at a constant
temperature introduced as the reference junction,
whereas the other is the measuring junction.
 When the temperature of the two junctions varies, a
voltage is produced across the junction, which is
utilized to sense the temperature.
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouple Applications
• Flame sensors in safety machines for gas-
powered systems.
• Temperature sensors in thermostats for home
instruments.
• Temperature measurement for industrial
procedures such as gas turbine exhaust, and
diesel engines.
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouple Construction
• The working principle of a thermocouple is very basic and
simple. When the junction of the two different metals
such as copper and constantan fused, they generate a
“thermo-electric” result, which provides a few millivolts
(mV), constant potential difference, between them.
• The voltage difference between them is named the
“Seebeck effect” as a temperature difference is produced
along the conducting wires making an EMF Then the
external voltage from a thermocouple is an operation of
the temperature variations.
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouple Construction
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouple Construction
• If both parts are at the same temperature, so the
potential difference in the junctions is zero.
• In other words, we have no output voltage and V1 = V2.
Nevertheless, when the joints are connected with a
circuit and have different temperatures, an output
voltage will be identified comparative to the difference in
temperature between them, V1 – V2.
• This variation in voltage will rise according to the
temperature until the joints peak voltage rate is
obtained. This is specified by the features of the two
different metals utilized.
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouple Construction
• The three usual thermocouple substances
employed for general temperature sensors
are Iron-Constantan, Nickel-Chromium, and
Copper-Constantan.
• The output voltage of a thermocouple is very
low, for instance, only a few millivolts (mV) for
a 10oC variation in temperature. Because of
this low output voltage, some solutions like
amplification is usually needed.
 Temperature Sensors
 Types of Thermocouple Sensors
 There are several types of thermocouples that
are made from a variety of different material,
which allows for different temperature ranges
and different sensitivities. The different types
are differentiated by designated letters. The
most commonly used is the K type
 Temperature Sensors
 Types of Thermocouple Sensors
 Temperature Sensors
 Disadvantages of Thermocouple
Sensors
 Some disadvantages of thermocouples include the
fact that measuring temperature can be
challenging because of their small output voltage,
which requires precise amplification, susceptibility
to external noise over long wires, and cold junction.
Cold junction is where thermocouple wires meet
copper traces of the signal circuitry. This creates
another Seebeck Effect which needs to be
compensated for called cold junction compensation.
 Temperature Sensors
 Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD)
 Resistance Temperature Detector or RTD is a temperature
sensor whose resistance varies directly with temperature.
 It is usually built from platinum, while those constructed from
nickel or copper are not unusual, RTDs can be made in many
different forms, such as thin film or wire-wound.
 The problem is that Platinum is too expensive, and one of the
practical disadvantages of using this type of instrument is its
cost.
 Applying a constant current, measuring the output voltage, and
determining the resistance of RTD are the simple methods to
measure the temperature in an RTD.
 Temperature Sensors
 Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD)
 RTDs approximately display linear resistance to temperature
diagrams over their working parts.
 For instance, the PT100 RTD evaluation board utilizes plain
mount RTD to measure temperature (PT100 has a standard
resistance range of 100Ω at 0oC).
 An external 2, or more-wire PT100, can also be used to
measure temperature in remote sections.
 The current magnitude is always low to decrease self-heat
according to power dissipation. The circuit presented in the
figure is the constant current condition that utilizes an
amplifier, a reference voltage, and a PNP transistor.
 Temperature Sensors
 Resistance Temperature Detector
(RTD)
 RTD’s are exact temperature sensors constructed from high-
purity conducting metals similar to that of the thermistor.
 These instruments have a thin film of platinum entrusted on a
white ceramic surface.
 RTDs have positive temperature coefficients (PTC), but
dissimilar to the thermistor, their external voltage is extremely
linear, generating very accurate measurements between
temperature sensors.
 Nevertheless, they have very low thermal sensitivity, which is a
temperature modification only generates a very low output
change, for example, 1Ω/oC.
 Temperature Sensors
 Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD)
 RTD’s are passive resistive systems like thermistors.
They pass a constant current in the temperature
sensor to gain an output voltage that rises linearly
with temperature. A normal RTD has a resistance of
about 100Ω at 0oC, rising to 140Ω at 100oC with a
working temperature range of between -200 to
+600oC.
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermistors
 The thermistor is a temperature sensor whose
resistance varies with temperature, similar to the
RTDs.
 However, thermistors are constructed from
semiconductor substances. Their name is included
from the term: THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR.
 A thermistor has a particular type of resistor,
which modifies its physical resistance greater than
other temperature sensors.
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermistors
 Their resistance is specified like the RTDs, but
thermistors present a nonlinear resistance-
temperature diagram.
 As a result, it can supply a large resistance variation
for a very small temperature modification in the
working range.
 This makes it a highly sensitive instrument, ideal for
high-tech and set-point applications
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermistors
 Thermistors are usually made from ceramic
substances like oxides of manganese, nickel, or cobalt
covered in particular glasses surface. Their special
advantages over other types are accuracy,
repeatability, and quick response to variations in
temperature.
 Most kinds of thermistors have a Negative
Temperature Coefficient of resistance (NTC); that is,
their resistance decreases when the temperature
increases. However, there are a few types of them
that have a Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC).
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermistors
 Thermistors are evaluated by their timely
response to react to the temperature
variation, their resistive range at room
temperature, and their power rating according
to the current through them. Thermistors are
available with different resistance values from
a few Ohms to MΩ ranges, but for sensing
applications, those types with kilo-ohms
ranges are usually utilized.
 Temperature Sensors
 Thermistors
 Thermistors are evaluated by their timely
response to react to the temperature
variation, their resistive range at room
temperature, and their power rating according
to the current through them. Thermistors are
available with different resistance values from
a few Ohms to MΩ ranges, but for sensing
applications, those types with kilo-ohms
ranges are usually utilized.
 Temperature Sensors
 Semiconductor-based
Temperature sensors
 Semiconductor based temperature sensor ICs
come in two different types: local temperature
sensor and remote digital temperature sensor.
Local temperature sensors are ICs that measure
their own die temperature by using the physical
properties of a transistor. Remote digital
temperature sensors measure the temperature
of an external transistor.
 Temperature Sensors
 Semiconductor-based Temperature
sensors
 Local temperature sensors can use either analog or
digital outputs. Analog outputs can be either voltage or
current while digital outputs can be seen in several
formats such as I²C and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI).
 Local temperature sensors sense the temperature on
printed circuit boards or the ambient air around it.
The MAX31875 is an extremely small local temperature
sensor and can be used in multiple applications
including battery powered applications.
 Temperature Sensors
 Semiconductor-based Temperature
sensors
 Remote digital temperature sensors work like local
temperature sensors by using the physical properties of a
transistor. The difference is the transistor is located away
from the sensor chip. Some microprocessors and FPGAs
include a bipolar sensing transistor to measure die
temperature of the target IC.
 They offer a linear response but have the lowest accuracy
of the basic sensor types. These temperature sensors also
have the slowest responsiveness across the narrowest
temperature range (-70 °C to 150 °C).
 Actuators
 Actuators?
 Actuators are mechanical or electro-
mechanical devices that, upon being operated
electrically, manually, or by various fluids,
allow controlled and sometimes limited
movements or positioning. They refer to that
component of a machine that helps carry out
the moving and controlling of a mechanism or
system; take for instance opening a valve. To
put it simply, they can be called movers.
 Actuators
 Actuators
 Actuators basically need a control signal and a
source of energy. Upon receiving a control signal,
the actuator uses energy from the source to bring
about a mechanical motion. The control system can
be a human, a fixed mechanical or electronic
system, or even software-based, say a printer
driver, or a robot control system.
 Examples of actuators include electric motors,
stepper motors, electroactive polymers, screw jacks,
servomechanism, solenoids and hydraulic cylinders.
 Actuators
 Types of Actuators
 Actuator types also vary depending on motions, power
configurations, styles and sizes depending on the application.
 Mechanical actuators
 Hydraulic actuators
 Pneumatic actuators
 Electric Linear actuators
 Electric Rotary actuators
 Electromechanical actuators
 Electrohydraulic actuators
 Thermal actuators
 Magnetic actuators
 Actuators
 Mechanical actuators
 Mechanical actuators are one of the most used
actuators in everyday life.
 For instance, a pulley system, gears, rack and
pinion system, etc., are prominent examples of
mechanical actuators.
 The muscular force is applied to the input of the
mechanical actuators, the actuator then provides a
significant amount of leverage to the efforts
applied, and finally, the desired movement of the
object is achieved.
 Actuators
 Hydraulic actuators
 Hydraulic actuators have a cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic
power to generate mechanical motion, which in turn leads to linear,
rotatory or oscillatory motion.
 Given the fact that liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a
hydraulic actuator can exert a large force.
 When the fluid enters the lower chamber of the actuator’s hydraulic
cylinder, pressure inside increases and exerts a force on the bottom
of the piston, also inside the cylinder.
 The pressure causes the sliding piston to move in a direction
opposite to the force caused by the spring in the upper chamber,
making the piston move upward and opening the valve.
 The downside with these actuators is the need for many
complementary parts and possibility of fluid leakage.
 Actuators
 Pneumatic actuators
 Pneumatic actuators convert energy in the form of compressed air into
mechanical motion.
 Here pressurized gas or compressed air enters a chamber thus building
up the pressure inside. Once this pressure goes above the required
pressure levels in contrast to the atmospheric pressure outside the
chamber, it makes the piston or gear move kinetically in a controlled
manner, thus leading to a straight or circular mechanical motion.
 Examples include pneumatic cylinders, air cylinders, and air actuators.
Cheaper and often more powerful than other actuators, they can
quickly start or stop as no power source has to be stored in reserve for
operation.
 Often used with valves to control the flow of air through the valve,
these actuators generate considerable force through relatively small
pressure changes.
 Actuators
 Electrical Linear actuators
 Taking off from the two basic motions of linear and rotary, actuators
can be classified into these two categories: linear and rotary.
 Electric linear actuators take electrical energy and turn it into
straight line motions, usually for positioning applications, and they
have a push and pull function.
 They convert energy from the power source into linear motion using
mechanical transmission, electro-magnetism, or thermal expansion;
they are typically used whenever tilting, lifting, pulling and pushing
are needed.
 They are also known for offering precision and smooth motion
control; this is why they are used in industrial machinery, in
computer peripherals such as disk drives and printers, opening and
closing dampers, locking doors and for braking machine motions
 Actuators
 Electrical Rotary actuators
 Consisting of motors and output shaft mechanisms with limited
rotary travel, electric rotary actuators convert electrical energy
into rotary motion.
 Used in a wide range of industries where positioning is needed,
and driven by various motor types, voice coils, these actuators
work as per specifications such as the intended application,
drive method, number of positions, output configuration,
mounting configuration, physical dimensions and electrical
characteristics.
 A common use is for controlling valves such as ball or butterfly
valves. Other applications include automation applications
where a gate, door or valve needs controlled movement to
certain rotational positions.
 Actuators
 Electromechanical actuators
 Electromechanical actuators are mechanical actuators where there’s
an electric motor in place of the control knob or handle.
 The rotary motion of the motor leads to linear displacement. The
inclined plane concept is what drives most electromechanical
actuators; the lead screw’s threads work like a ramp converting the
small rotational force by magnifying it over a long distance, thus
allowing a big load to be moved over a small distance.
 While there are many design variations among electromechanical
actuators available today, most have the lead screw and the nut
incorporated into the motion.
 The biggest advantages are their greater accuracy in relation to
pneumatics, their longer lifecycle and low maintenance effort
required. On the other hand, they do not boast the highest speed
 Actuators
 Electrohydraulic actuators
 Instead of hydraulic systems, electrohydraulic actuators have self-
contained actuators functioning solely on electrical power.
 They are basically used to actuate equipment such as multi-turn
valves, or electric-powered construction and excavation
equipment.
 In case of controlling the flow of fluid through a valve, a brake is
typically installed above the motor to prevent the fluid pressure
from forcing open the valve.
 The main advantage here is that these actuators help do away with
the need for separate hydraulic pumps and tubing, simplifying
system architectures and enhancing reliability and safety.
 Originally developed for the aerospace industry, today they are
found in many other industries where hydraulic power is used.
 Actuators
 Thermal actuators
 A thermal actuator is a non-electric motor that generates linear
motion in response to temperature changes.
 Its main components are a piston and a thermal sensitive
material. When there is a rise in temperature, the thermal-
sensitive materials begin to expand in response, driving the
piston out of the actuator.
 Similarly, upon detecting a drop in the temperature, the thermal-
sensitive materials inside contract, making the piston retract.
 Thus these actuators can be used for carrying out tasks such as
releasing latches, working switches and opening or closing valves.
 They have many applications, particularly in the aerospace,
automotive, agricultural and solar industries.
 Actuators
 Magnetic actuators
 Magnetic actuators are those that use magnetic effects to produce
motion of a part in the actuator. They usually come in the following
categories: moving coil actuator, moving magnet actuator, moving
iron actuator and electromagnetic actuator.
 In case of the first kind (moving coil actuator), a mobile coil driven by
a current is placed in a static magnetic field, where it is subject to the
Lorentz force. This force is proportional to the applied current.
 Moving magnet actuators work differently; here mobile permanent
magnet is placed between two magnet poles and is switched from one
pole to the other using coils. Such actuators can generate high forces
but are not easily controlled.
 In moving iron actuators, a soft magnetic part placed into a coil
system moves in a fashion that keeps the system magnetic energy to
a minimum.