Lesson 09: Earth Materials and Resources

- Energy Resources
Learning Objectives;

1. Describe how fossil fuels are formed (S11ES-Ie-

f-13). 2. Explain how heat from inside the earth is
tapped as a source of energy (geothermal) for
human use (S11ES-Ie-11).
3. Explain how energy (hydroelectric) is harnessed
from flowing water (S11ES-Ie-12).
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

1. describe how fossil fuels are formed;

2. explain how heat from inside the earth is tapped as a source of
energy (geothermal) for human use;
3. explain how energy (hydroelectric) is harnessed from flowing
water; and
4. create individual models explaining how fossil fuels are formed,
and how geothermal and hydroelectric energy are harnessed for
human use.
• Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring
in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms,
such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later
exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of
carbon along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur,
oxygen, and nitrogen.

• Coalification is the formation of coal from plant material by the processes of

diagenesis and metamorphism. Also known as bituminization or carbonification.
It all starts with a swamp on the edge of a sedimentary basin, such as a lagoon or
a lake. Tectonic activity raises sea levels, covering and killing vegetation. Plant
debris accumulates and is buried under layers of mud and sand in a process
known as sedimentation. This protects the debris from the air and slows down
the decomposition process. The vegetation grows back, until the next flooding.
The sedimentary basin gradually sinks under the weight of the sediments, and the
layers of dead plants are subjected to rising temperatures that gradually “cook”
them, leading to their transformation. The different stages of sedimentation turn
cellulose, the main component of wood, from peat to lignite (brown coal), then
sub-bituminous coal, followed by bituminous coal and, finally, anthracite.
Anthracite has the highest carbon content.
Geological Time For The Formation of Coal
• The most favorable conditions for the formation of coal occurred 360 million to
290 million years ago, during the Carboniferous (“coal-bearing”) Period. However,
lesser amounts continued to form in some parts of the Earth during all subsequent
periods, in particular the Permian (290 million to 250 million years ago), and
throughout the Mesozoic Era (250 million to 65 million years ago).
• The accumulated plant matter buried during the Tertiary Era — less than 65
million years ago — is generally less mature. It is often in the form of lignite,
which still contains a high content of volatile matter (bitumen and decayed wood)
and has a lower carbon content. However, there is also some higher rank coal
from the Tertiary Era, coal that matured early, heated by plate tectonics.
Examples of this include Paleocene coal (65 to 55 million years ago), found in
Columbia and Venezuela, and Miocene coal (20 million years ago), found in
Indonesia. In Indonesia, where the geothermal gradient is very high, anthracite
lies close to the surface.
• However, the deposits in the Moscow Basin have never gone beyond the lignite
stage as it is too cold. Finally, recent accumulations (from 10,000 years ago to
today) are very rich in fibrous debris known as peat, in which the shapes of
branches and roots can still be discerned. This material was not buried deep
enough to contain elemental carbon.
The Different Types of Coal

• There are several different types of coal. They are ranked according to their
carbon and volatile matter content.
- Anthracite is 86 to 98% pure carbon and 8 to 3% volatile matter. It is an
excellent fuel that is still used to heat homes.
- Bituminous coal contains 70 to 86% carbon and 46 to 31% volatile matter. It is
used to make coke, used in metallurgy.
- Sub-bituminous coal is 70 to 76% carbon and 53 to 42% volatile matter. It is
burned in industrial boilers.
- Lignite is 65 to 70% carbon and 63 to 53% volatile matter. It is a low-grade fuel
with a high moisture content that is used in industrial boilers.
- Peat consists of partially decomposed vegetation. Technically speaking, it
isn’t coal. It has a carbon content of less than 60% and is composed entirely of
volatile matter. A poor fuel that was once used throughout Europe in the form
of dried briquettes for heating, today it is used only in a few regions, such as
Ireland.
What is petroleum (oil and gas) and how is it formed?
How Oil and Gas Deposits are Formed
• Deep in the Earth, oil and natural gas are formed from
organic matter from dead plants and animals. These
hydrocarbons take millions of years to form under very
specific pressure and temperature conditions.
• When a living organism dies, it is generally recycled in
one of two ways:
- It is eaten by predators, scavengers or bacteria.
- Through exposure to ambient air or oxygen-rich water, it
oxidizes. That means that the hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
sulfur and phosphorus contained in the matter combine
with oxygen atoms present in the air. The organic matter
breaks down into water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2),
nitrates, sulfates and phosphates that nourish new plants.
The Slow Formation of Source Rock
• A tiny proportion of this organic matter — about 0.1% — escapes this fate.
Transported by water, it sometimes sinks to the bottom of the sea or large
continental lakes. It is partly preserved in these poorly oxygenated
environments, well away from tidal currents. It mixes with inorganic matter,
such as clay particles and very fine sand, and with dead marine plankton
(microscopic organisms). This mixture is transformed into dark, foul-smelling
mud by anaerobic bacteria.
• Over time, this mud accumulates and hardens. Mud that contains at least 1
to 2% organic matter may be transformed into source rock, which eventually
produces oil and gas deposits. This percentage may seem low, but that is
because one or more specific requirements are necessary to enable the
process to take place:
- A hot climate that is conducive to the growth of large quantities of
plankton.
- A location near the mouth of a major river carrying a lot of plant debris.
- No nearby mountains that could limit the volume of inorganic sediment
within the rock.
Source Rock Subsidence
• The weight of accumulating sediment very slowly pushes the source
rock further under the Earth's crust, by a few meters to a few
hundred meters every million years or so. This gradual sinking is
called subsidence and leads to the formation of sedimentary basins.

As it sinks below ground, the source rock is subjected to increasingly

high temperatures, the organic matter that makes up the rock is
crushed by the weight of the accumulating sediments, and the
pressure increases by 25 bar every 100 meters on average. At one
kilometer underground, the temperature is 50°C and pressure is 250
bar. Under these physical conditions, the nitrogen, sulfur and
phosphorus atoms are gradually
converted into kerogen, an intermediate material made up of water,
carbon dioxide, carbon and hydrogen, which is then transformed into
oil or gas.
How Oil and Gas Forms
• At a depth of 2,000 meters, when the temperature reaches 100°C, kerogen
starts to release hydrocarbons:
• Between 2,000 and 3,800 meters, it turns into oil. This depth interval is known
as the oil window.
• When the source rock sinks further, to between 3,800 and 5,000 meters,
production of liquid hydrocarbons peaks. The liquids produced become
increasingly lighter and gradually turn into methane gas, the lightest hydrocarbon.
This depth interval is known as the gas window.
• There are no hydrocarbons below a depth of 8 to 10 kilometers, because they
are destroyed by the high temperature.
• The proportion of liquids and gas generated in this way depends on the type of
source rock. If the organic debris is composed mostly of animal origin, it will
produce more oil than gas. If it is composed mainly of plant debris, the source
rock will produce mostly gas.
• With an estimated average sedimentation of 50 meters every million years, it
takes 60 million years for dead animals to become liquid hydrocarbons. It is hardly
surprising, therefore, that oil is classified as a non-renewable energy source.
How Oil and Gas Migrate
• Starting out from the source rock where they are formed, hydrocarbon
molecules, which are light, set off on an upward journey to the surface. They
accumulate in porous rock and are blocked by impermeable rock, thereby creating
oil and gas deposits.
The Slow Rise to the Surface of Oil and Gas
• In the source rock, hydrocarbons are present in greater volumes under higher
pressures than the initial kerogen. Little by little, they are expelled into the
water-containing rocky layers located adjacent to the source rock. Because
hydrocarbons are lighter than water, gas and oil rise upward by circulating
between the mineral grains of the rock. This slow, constant movement away from
the source rock is called migration.
• Migration is a complicated process. The rate depends on the permeability of the
rocks they cross and the size of the molecules: gas molecules rise more quickly
than oil molecules, because they are smaller and more mobile. Some hydrocarbon
molecules are prevented from moving upward, either because they dissolve in the
water contained in the rock they encounter (this affects gas much more often
than oil) or because they adhere to the grains that make up the rock. This
phenomenon is known as migration loss. These losses can be significant, especially
if the oil and gas have a long way to travel. This is why some source rock
hydrocarbons will never be suitable for development.
The Formation of Deposits in Reservoir Rock, Under Cap Rock
• A hydrocarbon deposit can only form in reservoir rock. Hydrocarbon molecules may
accumulate in large quantities in this porous, permeable rock.
• Sedimentary rock is formed of solid particles deposited in seas, oceans, lakes or lagoons.
The appearance of the rock is different depending on the size of these particles: very large
grains form rock consisting of gravel, small grains bond together to form sand, and the
smallest grains of all form clay or mud.
• There are also empty spaces within the rock that determine its porosity. The higher the
percentage of space within the rock, the more porous the rock, which can contain large
quantities of fluids such as water, oil or gas. Pumice is an example of a porous rock. These
spaces, or pores, may be connected. Their connectivity is known as permeability, which is
what allows fluids to circulate within the rock. Not all rock is both permeable and porous.
Oil exploration engineers look for reservoir rocks — also known as reservoirs — that combine
good porosity (large quantities of hydrocarbons) and good permeability (which makes it easy
to extract these hydrocarbons because they flow unimpeded inside the rock).
• However, a hydrocarbon deposit will only form if the reservoir rock is capped by a layer of
impermeable rock that prevents the oil or gas from rising vertically to the surface and
forms a closed space that prevents the oil or gas from rising laterally. This cap rock forms a
barrier and traps the hydrocarbons. While clay and crystallized salt (evaporate) layers form
the best cap rock, any rock that is sufficiently impermeable — such as highly compact
carbonates — can serve as a cap rock
Absence of Cap Rock

• If the hydrocarbon molecules are not prevented from rising,

they will move through the reservoir rock and cannot
accumulate.
• Oil or gas that reaches the surface at the end of its migration
is exposed to bacteria and ambient air. This triggers complex
chemical reactions that convert them into water and carbon
dioxide. However, when significant quantities of hydrocarbons
arrive at the surface more quickly than the final degradation
process, the heaviest molecules may remain in the ground in the
form of viscous, almost solid bitumen, buried at depths of a few
meters. But these bitumen deposits will quickly disappear when
the hydrocarbons stop arriving at the surface to replenish them.
From Traps to Commercial Deposits

• A hydrocarbon deposit can only form in reservoir rock. Hydrocarbon molecules may
accumulate in large quantities in this porous, permeable rock.
• Sedimentary rock is formed of solid particles deposited in seas, oceans, lakes or
lagoons. The appearance of the rock is different depending on the size of these
particles: very large grains form rock consisting of gravel, small grains bond together to
form sand, and the smallest grains of all form clay or mud.
• There are also empty spaces within the rock that determine its porosity. The higher
the percentage of space within the rock, the more porous the rock, which can contain
large quantities of fluids such as water, oil or gas. Pumice is an example of a porous
rock. These spaces, or pores, may be connected. Their connectivity is known as
permeability, which is what allows fluids to circulate within the rock. Not all rock is
both permeable and porous. Oil exploration engineers look for reservoir rocks — also
known as reservoirs — that combine good porosity (large quantities of hydrocarbons)
and good permeability (which makes it easy to extract these hydrocarbons because
they flow unimpeded inside the rock).
• However, a hydrocarbon deposit will only form if the reservoir rock is capped by a
layer of impermeable rock that prevents the oil or gas from rising vertically to the
surface and forms a closed space that prevents the oil or gas from rising laterally. This
cap rock forms a barrier and traps the hydrocarbons. While clay and crystallized salt
(evaporate) layers form the best cap rock, any rock that is sufficiently impermeable —
such as highly compact carbonates — can serve as a cap rock.
Absence of Cap Rock

• If the hydrocarbon molecules are not prevented from rising,

they will move through the reservoir rock and cannot
accumulate.
• Oil or gas that reaches the surface at the end of its
migration is exposed to bacteria and ambient air. This triggers
complex chemical reactions that convert them into water and
carbon dioxide. However, when significant quantities of
hydrocarbons arrive at the surface more quickly than the final
degradation process, the heaviest molecules may remain in
the ground in the form of viscous, almost solid bitumen,
buried at depths of a few meters. But these bitumen deposits
will quickly disappear when the hydrocarbons stop arriving at
the surface to replenish them.
From Traps to Commercial Deposits

• Commercial oil and gas deposits occupy closed spaces

created by deformations in geological layers. These spaces,
known as traps, must be large enough to make developing the
deposit economically viable. Reservoir rock, which is both
porous and permeable, can hold a given quantity of
hydrocarbons. Cap rock, which seals these reservoirs, stops
the hydrocarbons from migrating upwards to the surface.
• But before a deposit can be formed, these hydrocarbons
must also be sealed in a closed space called a trap.
About Oil and Gas Traps

• There are two main types of trap:

1. Structural traps, which are formed by changes in geological layers caused by the
movement of tectonic plates. Reservoir rock is sometimes deformed until it forms a
completely sealed space. These anticlinal traps are dome-shaped and the most common
type of structural trap.
2. Stratigraphic traps are made up of sedimentary layers that have not undergone
tectonic deformation. In this case, a cap rock completely seals off the reservoir rock. For
example, salt domes can act as cap rocks in this type of trap.
• The trap contains hydrocarbons, but also residual water. Because they are lighter than
the water, the hydrocarbons migrate above the water table. • Hydrocarbon traps can
contain:
- Oil, with significant quantities of dissolved gas.
- Gas, with light liquid hydrocarbons known as condensate.
- Both oil and gas. In this case, the gas, which is lighter than the oil, accumulates in the
upper part of the trap.
• If the reserves are developed, the gas dissolved in the crude oil will be turned into
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), used primarily as fuel. Condensate will be refined to
produce naphtha, used as a feedstock in the petrochemical industry, or kerosene, a fuel
used in aviation.
Conserving Hydrocarbons

• Once trapped, the hydrocarbons are still at risk of deterioration that could
prevent the formation of a commercial deposit.
• At depths of less than 1,000 meters, the accumulation can be infiltrated by
meteoric water (precipitation). This water contains bacteria and oxygen that
come into contact with the gas and oil, triggering chemical reactions that
separate them into water and carbon dioxide.
• Bacteria and oxygen start by attacking light and medium hydrocarbon
molecules. After a period of time, the initial oil is significantly degraded,
leaving only viscous, solid hydrocarbons that are more difficult to extract
than non-degraded oil or gas.
• Below 1,000 meters, the temperature is in most cases higher than 50°C
and the bacteria that cause the degradation cannot survive. Although no
longer threatened by bacteria or oxygen, traps located deep underground
can be affected by tectonic activity — some traps have even been created
this way. This can cause fractures and faults in the rock, breaking the seal
and letting the hydrocarbons leak out of the trap. More violent tremors can
even destroy the trap by substantially reducing or destroying the seal.
Fossil Fuel Power Generation
• Electrical energy generation using steam turbines involves three energy conversions, extracting
thermal energy from the fuel and using it to raise steam, converting the thermal energy of the
steam into kinetic energy in the turbine and using a rotary generator to convert the turbine's
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Geothermal Energy
• As you descend deeper into the Earth's crust, underground rock and water
become hotter. This heat can be recovered using different geothermal
technologies depending on the temperature. But the heat resources in geothermal
reservoirs are not inexhaustible.
Thermal Gradient
• The adjective geothermal comes from the Greek words ge (earth) and
thermos (heat). It covers all techniques used to recover the heat that is
naturally present in the Earth’s subsurface, particularly in aquifers, the
rock reservoirs that contain groundwater. About half this thermal (or
“heat”) energy comes from the residual heat produced when the planet
was formed 4.5 billion years ago and about half from natural
radioactivity.
• The temperature of geothermal water increases with depth, depending
on the thermal gradient — the average rate at which the temperature
rises with depth — of the region where it is found. The average value of
the gradient worldwide is 3°C per 100 meters of depth, but it varies
between 1°C and 10°C per 100 meters depending on the physical
conditions and geology of the region.
The Different Types of Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal technologies differ with the temperature of geothermal
water, which determines what can be done with it:
- At 20°C to 90°C, geothermal heat and water are used for geothermal
heating. This is called low-temperature geothermal energy (see Close-
Up "Low-Temperature Geothermal Energy: Heating”).
- At 90°C to 160°C, the water is used on the surface in liquid form. It
transfers its heat to another fluid, which vaporizes at low temperature
and drives a turbine to generate power. This is called medium-
temperature geothermal energy (see Close-up – "High Temperature
Geothermal Energy: Power”).
- At temperatures above 160°C, the water turns into steam when it
reaches the Earth’s surface. It drives turbines to generate power. This is
called high-temperature geothermal energy.
• The different temperature ranges are general, and practices may vary
according to the economic conditions of the particular location.
Availability of Geothermal Resources

• This heat varies in different areas. The average geothermal heat flow — the energy available for any
given surface area and period — on the surface is low. It averages 0.06 watts per square meter per
year, or 3,500 times less than the solar energy flow received in a single year by the same surface
area. This is why priority is given to using heat resources in those areas that are most likely to provide
significant amounts of energy. These “geothermal reservoirs” are found in all the Earth’s sedimentary
basins, but high-temperature geothermal energy is most likely to be found near volcanoes. In volcanic
areas, geothermal heat flow can reach 1 watt per square meter.
• Geothermal reservoirs tend to be depleted with use, some faster than others. Their replenishment
capacity depends on:
- Heat sources within the Earth’s crust, mainly radioactivity and residual heat. - Energy from outside
the reservoir (solar heat) for very low-temperature applications using heat pumps. Ensuring that
these reservoirs will be reheated is especially crucial for geothermal heat pumps: external factors,
such as low winter temperatures, cool the subsurface, meaning that less heat is available to be
harnessed.
- The circulation of groundwater that is reheated on contact with heat sources located
17
away from the reservoir before returning to the reservoir.
• Therefore, these heat resources must be replenished to use a reservoir in a sustainable manner.
This involves capping the amount of heat used and putting a time limit on the operation of the site.
• In addition, the availability of geothermal energy is geographically limited. Significant losses occur
when heat is transported over long distances. This can cause problems, because production sites
cannot always be located close enough to the place of consumption to meet energy needs.
How is heat from inside the earth tapped as a source of energy for
human use?
• Thermal energy, contained in the earth, can be used directly to supply heat or can
be converted to mechanical or electrical energy.
High-Temperature Geothermal Energy: Power
• Medium and high-temperature geothermal energy harnesses extremely hot
water and steam from beneath the Earth to generate electricity in
dedicated power plants.