EARTH MATERIALS AND RESOURCES

ORE MINERALS
The geologic processes involved in the rock cycle play major role in the accumulation and
concentration of valuable elements/ minerals.

Ore – naturally-occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of economic value can be
extracted.
Mineral resources can be classified according to the mechanism responsible for concentrating the
valuable substance.

1. Magmatic Ore Deposits

- valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through magmatic processes such as
crystal fractionation, partial melting and crystal settling.

2. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

- concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids flowing through fractures and
pore spaces in rocks
- Such hot water can dissolve valuable substances (at low concentrations) from rocks. As the metal
enriched hot waters move into cooler areas in the crust, the dissolved substances may start to
precipitate

3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits

- Some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or seawater

4. Placer Ore Deposits

- Deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity separation during
sedimentary processes
usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along coastlines.
- Concentration would be according to the specific gravity of substances, wherein the heavy minerals
are mechanically concentrated by water currents and the less-dense particles remain suspended and
are carried further downstream.
- Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to transportation and weathering.
- Common deposits are gold and other heavy minerals such as platinum, diamonds and tin

5. Residual Ore Deposits

- A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials through chemical
weathering processes.
- During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by leaching.
- Common deposits are bauxites (principal ore of aluminum) and nickeliferous laterites.

Types of mines: (A)

Underground, (B) Surface
(Open pit), (C) Strip, (D) Placer (being mined by a
floating dredge) (Source: Physical Geology Earth Revealed by Carlson, 2011, p 564)

Milling or Recovery Processes:

Materials extracted or “mined" are rocks composed of both ore and waste material (part of the
rock which contain very little or no element or mineral of economic value). The extracted rocks will
undergo processes of mineral (e.g. metal) separation and recovery. Recovering the minerals from the
oreand waste materials can involve one or more processes where in the separation is usually done in a
mill. Crushing and screening are the first stages of controlled size reduction followed by grindingwhere
the rocks are pulverized.

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1. Heavy media separation: The crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the heavier/denser
minerals sink thus are separated from the lighter minerals. This is commonly used to separate
chalcopyrite from quartz before the refining processes of extracting copper.
2. Magnetic separation: If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated from the
waste materials using a powerful magnet.
3. Flotation: The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy slurry where some minerals and
metals based on physical and chemical properties may either sink to the bottom or may stick to the
bubbles and rise to the top thus separating the minerals and metals from the waste.
4. Cyanide heap leaching: This method used for low-grade gold ore where the crushed rock is placed on
a “leach pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped on top of the pile. As the leach solution
percolates down through the rocks, the gold is dissolved into the solution. The solution is processed
further to extract the gold.

The waste material is either used as a backfill in the mine or sent to a tailings pond, while the
metals are sent for further processing

ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy sources can be broken down into 2 broad categories: Non-renewable and Renewable
resources according to Republic Act 9513 or the Renewable Act of 2008.
Non-Renewable sources are the following:
1. Coal 3. Natural Gas
2. Oil 4. Nuclear
Renewable sources include:
1. Solar 3. Hydroelectric 5. Geothermal
2. Wind 4. Biomass

A. FOSSIL FUELS
These are formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of dead organisms and
the formation takes millions of years. They contain high contents of carbon and include coal, petroleum
and natural gas. Kerosene and propane which are derivatives of fossil fuels are also included.

1. COAL
-formed through the process called coalification or carbonification or bituminization from plant
materials
-diagenesis and metamorphism during the Carboniferous (“coal-bearing”) period
-combustible sedimentary rock in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams
-composed primarily of carbon and other elements lie H, S, O 2 and N

Before the dinosaurs, Over millions of years, Heat and pressure

many giant plants died the plants were buried turned the dead plants
in swamps under water and dirt into coal

-different types are ranked based from their carbon content and volatile matter (Anthracite
having higher concentrations):
a. Anthracite – heat homes
b. Bituminous – metallurgy and coke making
c. Sub-bituminous – burned in industrial boilers
d. Lignite – low grade with high moisture in industrial boilers
e. Peat – consists of partially decomposed vegetation

2. PETROLEUM and NATURAL GAS

-they are formed from organic matter (dead plants and animals) under specific pressure and
temperature conditions in a process called catagenesis
-dead organisms are recycled when they are being eaten be predators, bacteria or scavengers
or through exposure to oxygen-rich water in which the organic matter breaks down into minerals
or compounds that nourish new plants
- source rock is the material from which oil and gas deposits are obtained

***Source rock: a small proportion of organic matter that mixes with clay particles, very fine sand and
mud, and with dead marine plankton transformed into a foul-smelling, dark mud by anaerobic
bacteria and this hardens and accumulates over time to produce oil and gas deposits in areas
with hot climates and those near the mouth of major rivers carrying lots of plant debris. The
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 weight of accumulating sediments push it into the Earth’s crust and as it sinks below the ground,
the organic matter is crushed and pressure converts nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus atoms into
kerogen which is made up of water, carbon dioxide, carbon and hydrogen and later on
transformed into oil or gas.

If the organic debris is composed mostly of animal origin, it will produce more oil and
if it mainly composed of plant debris, the source rock will produce mostly gas.

The oil and gas accumulate in porous rocks (rocks with small or large holes) creating gas and oil
deposits and because these are mainly hydrocarbons which are lighter than water, gas and oil
rise upward by circulating between the mineral grains of the rock (migration). The more porous
the rock is, the more that it contains water, oil or gas. However, this deposit can only form if the
reservoir rock is capped by a layer of impermeable rock that prevents the oil or gas from rising
or migrating

(Source:
http://www.mpoweruk.com/images/fossil_fuel.gif)

Electrical energy generation using steam turbines involves three energy conversions, extracting
thermal energy from the fuel and using it to raise steam, converting the thermal energy of the steam
into kinetic energy in the turbine and using a rotary generator to convert the turbine's mechanical
energy into electrical energy.

B. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
-the energy that comes from Earth’s internal heat and is recovered usually from aquifers
- average of 3 to 10 degrees Celsius per 100 meters of depth
- varies on the temperature:
a. Low temperature - 20 oC to 90 oC, for geothermal heating
b. Medium temperature - 90 oC to 160 oC, for generation of turbines via geothermal water wells
or in volcanic areas of hot spots
c. High temperature - >160 oC with hot water and steam for generation of power by turbines in
power plants

***medium to high temperature geothermal energy can be used to wash and dry wall and to
manufacture pulp or to treat biomass

***geothermal power plants include binary plants, pumps, and flash plants and these use geothermal
wells and hydrocarbon pipes

- Can also be classified as to:

a. dry steam
b. flash steam
c. binary cycle

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 Geothermal reservoirs tend to be depleted with use, some faster than others. Their
replenishment capacity depends on:
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- Heat sources within the Earth’s crust, mainly radioactivity and residual heat.
- Energy from outside the reservoir (solar heat) for very low-temperature applications using
heat pumps. Ensuring that these reservoirs will be reheated is especially crucial for
geothermal heat pumps: external factors, such as low winter temperatures, cool the
subsurface, meaning that less heat is available to be harnessed.
- The circulation of groundwater that is reheated on contact with heat sources located away
from the reservoir before returning to the reservoir.

• Therefore, these heat resources must be replenished to use a reservoir in a sustainable

manner. This involves capping the amount of heat used and putting a time limit on the
operation of the site.

C. HYDROPOWER or HYDROELECTRIC POWER

- the leading renewable energy
-kinetic energy by moving water can be used to drive watermills to produce mechanical energy
- “white coal” is the modern hydropower harnessed in plants where electricity is generated
-an example is a dam and hydropower it has three main components:
a. dam with large waterfall, storage of energy and water supply and regulates flooding
b. penstock to channel water from its supply like a lake or river to the dam reservoir (can be
open, tunnel or pipeline)
c. powerhouse for turbines or generators

The kinetic energy generated by

moving water has been used by humankind
for centuries, To drive watermills that
produce mechanical energy. Modern
hydropower, sometimes referred to as
“white coal," is harnessed in plants where
electricity is generated.

Types:
a. Impoundment – with large hydropower
system, with dam as reservoir
b. Diversion / Run-of-river– no dam
required; from run-off river where water
is channeled like in small scale
hydropower systems
c. Pumped storage / off stream – stores elec. generated from lower to higher reservoir and
requires large tidal range

Department of Energy or DOE’s Philippine Energy Plan 2012-2030:

DOE’s Energy Reform Agenda (ERA):

A. Power Sector Development
• The development plans on power systems, transmission highways, distribution facilities and
missionary electrification provide the platform to put in place long-term reliable power supply,
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improve the country’s transmission and distribution systems and attain nationwide
electrification. Based on the Plan, the government will concentrate its efforts on the
completion of committed power projects, as well as attract local and foreign investors to
venture into indicative and potential power projects to include electrification projects.

B. Fueling Sustainable Transport Program

• Pursue the implementation of the Fueling Sustainable Transport Program (FSTP) which seeks
to convert public and private vehicles from diesel and gasoline to compressed natural gas
(CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electric power. Under the program, CNG buses are
envisioned to ply throughout the country. It also includes the promotion of electric vehicles for
public transport and the increase in biofuels blends to 20.0 percent. With the FSTP, the
government hopes to reduce the carbon footprint from road transport in the Philippines. It has
been estimated that road transportation accounts for around 50.0 percent of the total air
pollutants in the country.

C. Indigenous Energy Development Program

• As energy demand is anticipated to grow significantly over the indicated planning period, it
is incumbent for the energy sector to pursue all means to develop the country’s indigenous
resources. The Plan programs the conduct of energy contracting rounds as an effective
strategy to bring in critical investments for the exploration, development and production of
local energy resources.

D. National Renewable Energy Plan

• With the global trend towards a clean energy future, the Renewable Energy Act was passed
in 2008 to fully harness the country’s renewable energy potential such as geothermal, hydro,
wind, solar, biomass and ocean. To guide the full implementation of the law, the National
Renewable Energy Program (NREP) was launched on 14 June 2011 by President Aquino.

E. Energy Efficiency and Conservation Program

• Includes the National Energy Efficiency and Conservation Program (NEECP) as one of the
centerpiece strategies in pursuing energy security of the country and looks into it as a major
solution to the energy challenges of the future. The proposed legislation aims to incorporate
policies and measures to develop local energy auditors and energy managers, establish the
ESCO industry, encourage the development of energy efficient technologies and provide
incentives for the effective promotion of efficiency initiatives in the energy market sector.

F. Natural Gas Master plan

• A complementary initiative to ensure the country’s energy security is the review and update
of the Master Plan Study for the Development of the Natural Gas Industry in the Philippines.
The Masterplan, with technical assistance from Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)
and World Bank, evaluates the opportunities, critical infrastructures and required investments
for the development of the natural gas industry.

WATER RESOURCES

The world’s water exists naturally in different forms and locations: in the air, on the
surface, below the ground and in the oceans. About 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered with
water, most of which is found in the oceans. In fact, 97.5% of Earth's water, nearly all of it, is
in the Earth’s oceans. This means that just 2.5% of Earth's water is fresh water, water with
low concentrations of salts. Most freshwater is found as ice in the vast glaciers of Greenland
and the immense ice sheets of Antarctica. That leaves just 0.4% of Earth’s water that is
freshwater that humans can easily use.

Most liquid freshwater is found under the Earth’s surface as groundwater, while the rest
is found in lakes, rivers, and streams, and water vapor in the sky.

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“Blue water”— the water in rivers, lakes and the like and can be distinguished from “green
water” — which feeds plants and crops, in root zones of soil and which is subsequently
released into the air. This distinction may help managers focus on those areas which green
water feeds and passes through, such as farms, forests, and wetlands. “Gray Water”
pertains to water as a product from industrialized establishments such as factories.

Note:
Much of the water underground is replenished either very slowly or not at all, and is
thus termed “non-renewable”. The largest aquifers of non-renewable water are found in North
Africa, the Middle East, Australia, and Siberia. There is some debate about how and when to
use this water. Many aquifers that contain non-renewable groundwater resources are shared
by more than one country and need to be managed in common for the benefit of all
administrative entities concerned.

If the infiltration of precipitation recharges the aquifer, the groundwater is considered

“renewable” and can be used for irrigation, domestic and other purposes. Few countries
measure the quality of underground water or the rate at which it is being withdrawn.
Monitoring is being improved in Europe and India, but remains minimal in many developing
countries, and is deteriorating in many industrialized ones.

****WATER SALINIZATION / SALINATION is a condition pertaining to an increase in the

water’s saline or salt concentration and an effect of mishandling water resources while
water pollution is a condition that degrades also the quality of water and makes it
unsuitable for use. Both can affect almost all resources and processes on Earth. The
former can be reduced by desalination and the latter by rehabilitation as well.

Integrated Water Resources Management is a collaborative process which

promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related
resources within hydrological boundaries, in order to maximize the resultant economic and
social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital
ecosystems.

LAWS governing water resources:

1. PD 424 of 1974 – created the National Water Resources Council
2. PD 1067 – instituted the Water Code which consolidated laws governing water resources
3. EO 222 of 1995 – established Presidential Committee on Water Conservation and Demand
Management to prepare nationwide Water Conservation Plan
4. RA 8041 – Natl. Water Crisis Act of 1995 which addressed water shortages and problems
and watershed conservation
5. RA 9275 – Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 for comprehensive water quality
management

Simple ways we can help to conserve and protect water sources:

1. Use less water.
Turn off the water while you brush your teeth and shave. Take shorter showers. Run the
clothes washer and dishwasher only when they're full. If you wash dishes by hand, fill the
sink or dishpan with water, rather than running the tap continuously as you scrub. Wash
your car by hand, and sweep, rather than hose down, your sidewalk and driveway.
2. Keep harmful substances out of the water.
3. Keep pipes and appliances in good condition.
4. Use water-efficient appliances.
5. Use water efficiently outdoors.
Landscape your yard with native and drought-tolerant plants and direct water runoff from
your roof to strategic spots of your lawn or garden.
6. Drive less.
Driving affects water quality. That's because exhaust eventually settles out of the air,
often into waterways. By choosing alternatives to driving (public transit, biking, walking,
carpooling) and bundling your errands, you'll reduce vehicle emissions and help protect our
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waters. Keeping your car in good shape helps too: a well-maintained vehicle is more efficient.
And remember: Never pour used motor oil down the drain -- that's a huge source of water
pollution.

SOIL RESOURCES
Soil can be inherent (natural) or dynamic (with human intervention). There are different
types of soil ranging from loam, rich soil to silty one. It also depends on the mineral content,
thus, soil has various colors. Reddish color pertains to higher iron content, whitish means it is
rich in aluminum and silicon while dark brown or black like humus has organic matter in it.
Soil can be formed from parent material or residual soil and its formation is affected by
climate, topography, biological factors and a long continuous process over time.

Types of Soil:
1. Sand – granular material and from weathered rocks
2. Silt – finer particles, very fertile, usually is carried by flowing water and deposited
3. Clay – has little air space, compact and dense and has tighter hold on plant materials
4. Loam – “perfect soil”, a mixture of particles
5. Peat and chalky soil

Soil Profile O
- Sequence of soil horizons or succession of zones from surface
to bedrock A
- Soil horizons:
E
O – organic materials, loose and partly decayed materials
(HUMUS)
A – top soil, on the surface, with minerals and humus, biological B
activities like burrowing (TOPSOIL)
C
E – leaching zone, contains materials from older soil
(ELUVIATION)
B –with minerals like Aluminum and Iron, more water content R
(SUBSOIL)
C – substratum, altered parent material and unconsolidated rock fragments
(SAPROLITE, PARENT ROCK)
R – accumulated mass of limestone and more masses of rocks (BED ROCK)

Soil Triangle
The soil triangle is used to classify the texture
class of the soil. For agriculturists and engineers, it
allows them to use the fractions or the information
provided by the soil triangle to describe soil sample
and soil texture and they can compare the data with
mineral types in other soil. This influences the ease
with which soil can be worked, the amount of water
and air it holds, and the rate at which water can
enter and move through soil.

Soil is especially vulnerable to erosion if it is

bare or exposed. Plants therefore serve a
tremendous role in preventing soil erosion. If the
soil is covered with plants, erosion is slowed down.
But when soil is bare, the rate of erosion speeds up
tremendously. Soil compaction, degradation and
desertification affect quality of soil. Here are
some human activities that leave the soil exposed and speed up erosion. We speed up erosion
through the following actions:

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1. Agricultural Depletion
Farming can degrade the topsoil and lead to an increase in erosion. To plant a field, a
farmer must first till the soil, breaking it up and loosening it so the new plants can take root.
Once the plants are harvested, the loose soil remains and wind or rain can easily wash it
away. Planting cover crops in the fall can help maintain the soil through the winter months,
reducing the amount of erosion. In addition, rotating the crops planted can help return
nutrients to the soil to prevent its degradation.

2. Overgrazing Animals
Grazing animals are animals that live on large areas of grassland. They wander over
the area and eat grasses and shrubs. They can remove large amounts of the plant cover for
an area. If too many animals graze the same land area, once the tips of grasses and shrubs
have been eaten, they will use their hooves to pull plants out by their roots

3. Deforestation
One of the most important barriers to erosion is plant life, as long-lived trees and other
species put down roots that literally help hold the soil together. Logging kills these plants, and
even if the operation plants new trees to replace the old ones, the younger plants require
years to put down the kind of root system that once protected the soil. Timber companies
utilize a variety of different techniques, such as partial clearing and replanting, to prevent soil
degradation and erosion in their work zones.

4. Mining operations are major contributors to erosion, especially on a local level. Many
mining techniques involve shifting large amounts of earth, such as strip mining or
mountaintop removal. These operations leave large amounts of loose soil exposed to the
elements, and they often require large amounts of water, which can exacerbate the erosion
process. Even once the mining operation is completed and the company replaces the earth,
it lacks the established vegetation that helped it maintain its coherency before removal,
and until plants can reestablish themselves, erosion will continue to be a problem.

5. Development and Expansion

Urban and suburban development can also exacerbate erosion, especially if the
developers ignore the natural state of the land. Construction of a building often begins by
clearing the area of any plants or other natural defenses against soil erosion. In addition,
some landscapers replace natural ground cover with plant species unsuited to the climate,
and these plants may not be as effective at preventing erosion.

6. Recreational activities, like driving vehicles off-road or hiking

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 Humans also cause erosion through hiking and riding off-road vehicles over an area.
The area eventually develops bare spots where no plants can grow.

Humans generate wastes in different ways. This can also affect not only the soil but
also other Earth resources as well.

Other Sources of Wastes and their Environmental Impact:

1. Industrial waste
Waste released from manufacturing plants, such as chemical plants, cement production,
textile industries, metallurgical plants, textile, food processing, power plants, etc.

2. Agricultural waste
• Excess use of fertilizers and pesticides can cause land and water pollution.
• Rice paddies release methane to the atmosphere.
• Excess excrement from poultry and other livestock can cause eutrophication of bodies of
water.

3. Mining waste
• Waste generated from the exploitation of mineral resources
• Overburden material - ground (soil and rock) that is removed to extract the mineral deposit.
Release of overburden material to the environment as a result of improper management can
cause siltation of bodies of water.

• Acid mine drainage - water that has come to contact with oxidized rock or overburden that
contains sulphide material (coal, zinc, copper, and lead). When acid mine drainage is not
properly managed, it can find its way into waterways and the ground water. High pH waters
can be detrimental to plant and animal life. Acid mine drainage is also associated with the
release of heavy metals to the environment.

4. Biomedical Waste
• Waste generated by hospitals and other health care institutions
• This type of hazardous waste includes infectious waste and chemical waste dangerous to
people and the environment.
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 Some government regulations that control improper waste disposal:
Aside from municipal ordinances, Republic Act No. 9003 is an act providing for an
ecological solid waste management program, creating the necessary institutional mechanism
and incentives, declaring certain acts prohibited and providing penalties, appropriating funds
therefor, and for other purposes. Prohibited acts include:
๏ Littering, throwing, dumping of waste matters in public places
๏ Undertaking activities in violation of sanitation operation
๏ Open burning of solid waste
๏ Causing non-segregated waste
๏ Squatting in open dumps and landfills
๏ Open dumping, burying of biodegradable materials in flood-prone areas
๏ Unauthorized removal of recyclable material
๏ Mixing of source-separated recyclable material with other solid waste
๏ Establishment or operation of open-dumps
๏ Manufacturing, distributing, using, and importing consumer products that are non-
environmentally- friendly materials
๏ Importing toxic wastes misrepresented as ‘recyclable’ or ‘with recyclable content’
๏ Transporting and dumping in bulk in areas other than facility centers
๏ Site preparation, construction, expansion or operation of waste management facilities
without an Environmental Compliance Certificate and not conforming with the land use plan
of LGUs
๏ Construction of establishment within 200 meters from dump sites or sanitary landfills
๏ Operation of waste disposal facility on any aquifer, groundwater reservoir or watershed area

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