GE8076 Professional Ethics

in Engineering

UNIT II
 UNIT II
Engineering Ethics
UNIT II
 Senses of ‘Engineering Ethics’ – Variety of moral
issues – Types of inquiry – Moral dilemmas –
Moral Autonomy – Kohlberg’s theory –
Gilligan’s theory – Consensus and
Controversy – Professions
Professionalism and
– Professional
Virtues – Uses of Ethical Theories Ideals
 Engineering Ethics
Engineering Ethics:
• Concerned with the rules standards
governing
and the conduct of engineers in their role
as professionals.
• A body of philosophy guiding the ways that
engineers should conduct themselves in their
professional capacity.
Engineering Bodies:
 Aeronautical Society of India (AeSI)
 Computer Society of India (CSI)
 Optical Society of India (OSI)[4]
 The Institution of Engineers (India) (IEI)
 Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE)
 Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers (IIChe)
 Indian Institution of Industrial Engineering (IIIE)
 Society of EMC Engineers (India) (SEMCE(I))
 Indian Society for Technical Education (ISTE)
 Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA)
 Institution of Mechanical Engineers India (IME(I))
 The Institution of Biomedical Engineers (India) (IBEI)
 Engineering Ethics
 What is Engineering Ethics?
• Engineering Ethics is the Activity and discipline
aimed at
• Understanding moral values
that ought to guide
engineering profession or practice
• Resolving moral issues in engineering, and
• Justifying the moral judgments in engineering
• Engineering ethics is defined by the codes and
standards of conduct endorsed by engineering
(professional) societies with respect to the
particular set of beliefs, attitudes and habits
 Engineering Ethics
 What is Engineering Ethics? (Contd.)
 Another important goal of Engineering Ethics is
 Discovery of the set of justified moral principles of
obligation, rights and ideals that ought to be endorsed by
the engineers and apply them to concrete situations.
 Engineering is the largest profession; Decisions and
actions of engineers affect all of us in almost all areas
of our lives, namely, public safety, health, and welfare.
 The Concept of Engineering Ethics is not applicable
only for engineers.
 Applied to others who engage in any technological enterprises
(Scientists, Technicians, Technical Writers, Supervisors, Sales
Staff, Lawyers, Doctors etc.)
 Engineering Ethics
 Engineering Ethics Vs Professional Ethics
 Both are interchangeable.
 Professional ethics is wider in scope
than the engineering ethics
 Engineering ethics is a part of professional ethics.
 Professional Ethics is the discipline aimed at
understanding the moral values that ought to guide
all professional practices, including engineering,
medicine, law and other practices.
 Engineering Ethics refers to the set of specific
moral problems and issues related to engineering
profession only.
 Engineering Ethics
 Aims in Studying Engineering (Why Study
Ethics Engineering Ethics)

1. Stimulating the moral

imagination
2. Recognizing ethical
issues
3. Developing analytical
skills
4. Drawing out a sense
of responsibility
Ethical Requirements Vs.
Ethical Ideals
5. Addressing unclarity,
uncertainty, and
disagreement

Figure 1: Aims in Studying Engineering Ethics

 Scope of Engineering Ethics
 Scope of Engineering Ethics
 Ethics of the workplace which involves the co-
workers and employees in an organization
 Ethics related to the product or work which
involves the transportation, warehousing, and use,
besides the safety of the end product and the
environment outside the factory.
 Approaches in the study of
ethics
 Two approaches
 Micro-ethics: deals with and
decisions
problems individuals, professionals, and
 of
Macro-ethics: deals with the social
companies.
problems on a regional/national level.
 Sense of Engineering Ethics
 There are two different senses (meanings) of
engineering ethics, namely, NORMATIVE and
DESCRIPTIVE senses.
 Normative Sense includes the following:
1. Knowing moral values, finding accurate solutions to
moral problems, and justifying moral judgments in
engineering practices.
2. Study of decisions, policies, and values that are
morally desirable in the engineering practice and
research, and
3. Using codes of ethics and standards and applying
them in their transactions by engineers.
 Sense of Engineering Ethics
 Descriptive Sense refers to what specific
individual or group of engineers believe and act,
without justifying their beliefs or actions.
 Morality
 According to the Oxford dictionary, morality means principles
concerning right and wrong or good and bad behavior.
 The term ‘morality’ is concerned with
 (a) what ought or ought not to be given
in a given
situation,
 (b) what is right or wrong in handling it,
 (c) what is good or bad about the persons,
policies and principles involved in it.
 Morality
 Moral reasons are required to support an act (or an idea) to be
called as morally right act.
 What are moral reasons?
 Respecting others and ourselves
 Respecting the right of others
 Keeping promises to others
 Avoiding unnecessary offence and pain to others
 Avoiding cheating and dishonesty
 Showing gratitude for favor to others
 Encouraging teamwork.
 Variety of Moral Issues
 Two approaches
• Micro-ethics: deals with decisions and
problems of individuals,
professionals, and companies.
• Macro-ethics: deals with the social
problems on a
regional/national level.
 Variety of Moral Issues
 Where and How do Moral Problems Arise in Engineering?
 Engineers carry out various activities and decision-making
exercises involving technical, financial, managerial,
environmental and ethical issues.
 There are many situations and moral issues that cause
professional disagreements among engineers.
 Variety of Moral Issues
 Variety of moral issues and their relationship with
other issues are depicted in the following figure.
1. Organization oriented
Issues
2. Clients or Customers
oriented Issues
3. Competitors oriented
Issues
4. Law, Govt and
Public
oriented Issues
5. Professional Societies
oriented Issues
6. Social and Environmental
oriented Issues
7. Family oriented Issues
 Variety of Moral Issues
1. Organization oriented Issues
• Being an employee to a firm, the engineer has to work towards
the achievement of the objectives of his/her organization.
• Engineers have to give higher priority to the benefits
of the organization than one’s own benefits.
• Engineers should be able to work collectively with colleagues and
other members in order to achieve firm’s goals.
2. Clients or customers oriented Issues
• The customer’s requirements should be met.
• Engineers have a major role to play in identifying the ‘customer
voice’, and incorporating the voice of the customer into the
product design and manufacture.
• Apart from engineering technicality issues, engineers also should
face other moral and ethical issues with clients/customers.
 Variety of Moral Issues
3. Competitors oriented Issues
• In order to withstand in a market, engineers should produce things
better than their competitors by all means.
• But engineers should not practice cut-throat competition. They
should follow certain professional behavior while facing their
competitors.
• Engineers should hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of
the customers in the performance of their professional duties.
4. Law, Government and Public Agencies oriented Issues
• The engineers should obey and voluntarily comply with all the
government rules and regulations related to them.
• They should also respect and honestly practice all other similar
laws, policies and regulations.
 Variety of Moral Issues
5. Professional Societies oriented Issues
• The engineers should follow strictly the various codes of ethics by
various professional societies in order to perform standard
professional behavior.
6. Social and Environmental oriented Issues
• Since the works of engineers have a direct and vital impact on the
quality of life for all people, the engineers should be dedicated to
the protection of the public health, safety and welfare.
• Also engineers need to aware their role as
experimenters.
be They agents of have a united
commitment in
should protecting the
• environment.
As a human being and the member of a family, the engineers do
7. Family
have oriented
the familyIssues
obligations to take care of the needs of their
family members.
 Types of Inquiry
 Engineering ethics combines
inquiries into values, meanings, and
facts.
 In order to find solution to
‘moral dilemma’, inquiries are being
made.
 In engineering ethics, three types
of inquiry
• Normative Inquiries
 Normative Inquiries
Normative Inquiries
 These inquiries mostly helpful to
are
identify values guide the
the and groupswhichin taking a
individuals
 decision.
These meant for identifying and
are
justifying some norms and standards of
morally desirable nature for guiding
individuals as well as groups.
 Normative Inquiry
1. How do the obligations of engineers protect the
public safety in given situations?
2. When should an engineer have to alarm their
employers on dangerous practices?
3. Where are the laws and organizational
procedures that affect engineering practice on
moral issues?
4. Where are the moral rights essential for
engineers to fulfill their professional obligations?
 From these questions, it is clear that normative
inquiries also have the theoretical goal of
justifying moral judgments.
 Conceptual Inquiries
Conceptual Inquiries
 These are meant describing
meaning of concepts, the principles,
for
issues related to Engineering
andEthics.
 These inquiries also explain whether the
concepts and ideas are expressed by
single word or by phrases.
 Conceptual Inquiries
1. What is the safety and how it is related to
risk?
2. What does it mean when codes of ethics
say engineers should protect the safety,
health and welfare of the public?
3. What is a ‘bribe’?
4. What is a ‘profession’ and
‘professional’?
 Factual Inquiries
Factual Inquiries
 Known as ‘descriptive or exploratory’ inquiries.
 Helpful to provide facts required for understanding and
resolving values issues.
 Researchers and engineers use these inquiries to get
various information such as the history of engg.
Profession, the effectiveness of professional societies.
 The above-obtained information through factual inquiries
provides an understanding of the background conditions
that generate moral problems.
 All these factual inquiries are helpful in solving moral
problems by using alternative ways of solutions.
 Thus, factual inquiries are helpful in understanding the
business, social, and political realities in which the
company operates
 Moral Dilemma
Moral Dilemmas
• Moral Dilemmas are situations in which two
or more moral obligations, duties, rights,
goods, or ideals come into conflict with each
other.
• The crucial feature of a moral dilemma is that
all the moral principles cannot be fully
respected in a given situation.
• Also solving one moral principle can create
two or more conflicting applications for a
particular situation.
 Moral Dilemma
Causes of moral Dilemmas
• Moral dilemmas are situations, mostly,
due to the following three problems.
1. Problem of Vagueness
2. Problem of Conflicting reasons
3. Problem of disagreement
 Moral Dilemma
Causes of moral Dilemmas
1. Problem of Vagueness:
• Vague means not clearly expressed or
perceived; not specific or exact.
• For a given situation, sometimes it is unclear to
the engineers to apply the most appropriate
moral considerations or principles.
• They may not know how and which
moral principles to be used in resolving a
moral problem. This situation creates a
typical moral dilemma.
• EXAMPLE
 Moral Dilemma
Causes of moral Dilemmas
2. Problem of Conflicting Reasons:
• This is a situation where two or more
problems conflicting each other (each
which seems to be correct). of
• (In other words) Situation in which two or
more moral obligations, duties, rights,
goods, or ideals come into conflict with
each other.
• But when they come together, it is very
difficult choice to choose good one.
• EXAMPLE
 Moral Dilemma
Causes of moral Dilemmas
3. Problem of Disagreement:
• Individuals and groups may have different
views, suggestions, interpretations and
solutions on a moral problem in particular
situations.
• This disagreement among individuals
and groups on interpreting moral
issues will create a situation of
another moral dilemma.
• EXAMPLE
 Moral Dilemma
Steps in Confronting Moral Dilemmas
1. Identifying the pertinent moral factors and reasons.
2. Collecting all available moral considerations, which
are relevant to the moral factors involved.
3. Ranking the above collected moral considerations on the
basis of importance as applicable to the particular
situation.
4. Making factual inquiries
5. Inviting discussions, suggestions from colleagues,
friends, and other involved persons to critically examine
the moral dilemmas.
6. Taking the final decision.
 Moral Autonomy
What is meant by Moral Autonomy?
1. As already discussed, the practical aim in
studying and teaching engineering ethics course
is to foster the moral autonomy of future
engineers.
2. Autonomy means ‘Self-determining’
‘Independent’ or
3. Moral Autonomy is the ability think
to critically and independently about moral
issues and apply this normal thinking to
situations that arise during the professional
engineering practice.
 Moral Autonomy
What is meant by Moral Autonomy?
• In other words, moral autonomy means the
skill and habit of thinking rationally on
ethical issues based on moral concern.
• i.e., it is concerned with the
independent attitude of an individual
related to ethical issues.
• It is the ability to arrive at reasoned moral
views based on the responsiveness to
human values.
 Moral Autonomy
Factors influencing the Moral Concern (of
a person)
• Atmosphere in which the person is brought
up in his childhood.
• One’s relationship with friends
and relatives.
• One’s interaction with neighbors.
• One’s family structure and
family’s economy.
 Moral Autonomy
Factors influencing the Moral Concern (of
a person)
• Influence of religious institutions such
as temples, churches, mosques etc.
• Influence of educational institutions
such as schools, colleges etc.
• Influence of teachers and other mentors.
• Influence of media like
newspapers, novels, movies, television
etc.
 Moral Autonomy
Skills required to improve Moral
Autonomy (given by Mike Martin
Roland Schinizinger)and
• Proficiency in recognizing moral problems
and issues in engineering.
• Skill in understanding, clarifying, and
critically evaluating the arguments, which
are against the moral issues.
• Ability to form consistent and complete
perspectives on the basis of relevant facts.
 Moral Autonomy
Skills required to improve Moral Autonomy
(given by Mike Martin and Roland
Schinizinger)
• Ability to make imaginative and creative
alternative solutions under difficult situations.
• Sensitivity to valid difficulties and delicacies.
(i.e. sensitivity to others’ views, problems, and
sufferings.)
• Adequate knowledge to use the common
ethical language so as to support or defend
one’s moral views with others.
 Theories of Moral Development
• Concept of moral autonomy is very much
related to psychology and moral
development.
• Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan
have developed theories on moral
development based on the sorts of
reasoning and motivation adopted by
individuals with regard to moral questions.
 Theories of Moral Development -
Kohlberg’s Theory
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory
• Lawrence Kohlberg suggested three
levels of moral development, namely,
Pre-conventional Level, Conventional
Level, and Post-conventional Level
based on the type of reasoning and
motivation of the individuals in
response to moral questions.
 Kohlberg’s Theory
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory
• Pre-Conventional Level
• Based on desire to derive benefits for
oneself.
• Individuals behave according to socially
acceptable norms (taught by parents and
teachers)
• Individuals are motivated by desire to
avoid punishment or by their desire to
satisfy their own needs.
Age: Birth to 9 years
 Kohlberg’s Theory
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory
• Conventional Level
• Individuals are motivated by desire to please
others and meet social unit expectations (other
than self interest).
• Individuals give importance to loyalty and close
identification with others (rather than self-
interest).
• This level of moral thinking is found in society
generally. That is why it is called Conventional
Level
Age: 9 years to 20 years
 Kohlberg’s Theory
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory
• Post-Conventional Level
• Individuals are guided by strong principles and
convictions (not by selfish needs or pressure from
society).
• These individuals are called ‘autonomous’. (They
think for/by themselves; they do not believe that
customs are right.)
• They desire to maintain moral integrity, self-
respect and the of other autonomous
respect individuals.
Age: Over 20 years
 Theories of Moral Development –
Gilligan’s Theory
Carol Gilligan’s Theory
• Carol Gilligan states that Kohlberg’s theory is only
on ethics of rules and rights.
• But her theory is known as ethics of care. i.e. context
oriented emphasis required to maintain the personal
relationship.
• Gilligan's work on moral development outlines how
a woman's morality is influenced by relationships
and how women
form their moral and ethical foundation based on
how their decisions will affect others. She believes
that women tend to develop morality in stages.
 Gilligan’s Theory
Carol Gilligan’s Theory
Pre-Conventional Level
 This is more over the same
as Kohlberg’s first level.
 i.e. In this level, an individual
is concerned with self-centered
reasoning.
 Gilligan’s Theory
Carol Gilligan’s Theory
Conventional Level
 This level differs from Kohlberg’s second
level.
 According to Gilligan, women do not want
to hurt others and want to help others i.e.
women always want to give up their
interests in order to help the others to fulfill
their needs.
 Gilligan’s Theory
Carol Gilligan’s Theory
Post Conventional Level
• This level also differs from Kohlberg’s
third level.
• In this level, individuals (particularly
women) want to balance between caring
about other people and their interests.
• The balancing can be achieved only through
context-oriented reasoning and not by
abstract rules.
Kohlberg Theory and Gilligan’s Theory
 Consensus and Controversy
• Literally, consensus means ‘agreement’ and
controversy means ‘disagreement’.
• When an individual exercises moral autonomy,
he/she may not be able to attain the same
results as other people obtain in practicing
their moral autonomy.
• Surely there must be some moral differences
i.e. the results or verdicts will be of
controversy. This kind of disagreements is
unavoidable.
 Consensus and Controversy
• These disagreements require some
tolerances among individuals those who are
autonomous, reasonable and responsible
thinking.
• According to the principle of tolerance, the
objective of teaching and studying
engineering ethics is to discover ways of
promoting tolerance in the exercise of moral
autonomy by engineers
 Consensus and Controversy
Relationship between Autonomy and Authority
1. Moral autonomy and respect for authority are
compatible with each other.
• Moral autonomy is exercised based on the
moral concern for other people and
recognition of good moral reasons.
• Moral autonomy emphasizes the capabilities
and responsibilities of people.
• Authority provides the framework through
which learning attitudes are encouraged.
 Consensus and Controversy
Relationship between Autonomy
Authority and
2.
Sometimes,
individuals’ need for autonomy
conflicts and the
will arise need
between
for consensus about authority. This situation
can be reduced by having open and frank
discuss regarding a moral issue with the help
of authority.
Illustration: Consider the relationship between
autonomy and authority with reference to
 Consensus and Controversy
 Illustration: Consider the relationship between autonomy
and authority, with reference to a classroom. In the
classroom, the teachers have authority over students.
Authority of the teachers helps in maintaining the dignity
and decorum of academic climate in a institution; also in
restoring the confidence and respect between teachers and
students.
 As per the first point, there should be the acceptance of
authority by both the teachers and students, in order to
conduct the classes in orderly ways.
 When the authority is misused, conflicts may arise between
autonomy and authority. As per the second point, allowing
open discussions between teachers and students can reduce
the unhealthy academic atmosphere.
 Professions
What is a Profession?
and Professionalism
• The Latin root word ‘profession’ is ‘professionem’, which means
the making of a public declaration.
• Profession is also used as a synonym for ‘job’ and ‘occupation’.
• How do ‘job’ and ‘occupation’ differ from ‘profession’?
• Any work for hire can be considered as a job, irrespective of
the skill level involved and the responsibility approved.
• The word Occupation means employment through which
someone makes a living.
• Engineering is certainly a job and also an occupation.
Engineers are paid for the services; they make living out of it.
But the skills and responsibilities involved in engineering is
more than just a job.
• Thus, professions are occupations requiring sophisticated
knowledge, group commitment to some public good, and a
significant degree of self-regulation.
 Professions and Professionalism
Attributes of a Profession (Characteristics of a Profession)
• Knowledge: The work requires superior skills (i.e., knowing-
how), theoretical knowledge (i.e., knowing that), the use of
judgment, and the exercise of discretion.
• Organization: There should be an organization or an
association or a society to enroll the members practicing the
profession, letting the standards for admission to the
profession, drafting the codes of ethics, insisting on the
standards of conduct, and representing the profession before
the public and the government.
• Public good: The professionals’ knowledge and skills should
be helpful to the well-being of the general public and society.
• Thus any job or occupation or work can be said to be a
profession only when the above mentioned criteria are met.
Professions and Professionalism
• Professional: A professional is someone who is a
member of a profession or someone who is practising a
profession.
• Professionalism: refers to the qualities, competencies,
and skills of professional.
• When the criteria of profession are applied to one’s
vocation or calling, it makes for professionalism.
Professions and Professionalism
• The honours and liabilities of engineering profession as follows:
• Honours of engineering profession: It is a great profession an
engineer imagines with the help of science to draw a plan on a
paper. Then it is realized in stone or metal or energy. Then it brings
jobs and homes to men and women. Then, it elevates the standards
of living and adds comforts of life. That is, the engineers have high
privilege.
• Liabilities of engineering profession: The great liability of an
engineer compared to other professionals is that he/she works out in
open area where all can see them. He/She works in hard substance.
He/She cannot bury his mistakes in the grave as the doctors.
He/She cannot argue like the lawyers blaming the judges, like the
politicians blaming the opponents and so on. The engineer simply
cannot deny that he did not do. If his works do not work, he is
cursed.
Models of Professional Roles
Models of Professional Roles
 Professional Ideals and Virtues
• What is meant by Virtues?
• Virtue can be defined as moral distinction
and goodness.
• It refers to moral excellence of one’s behavior.
• Virtue means our ideals of what is right and what is
wrong.
• Virtues are desirable ways of relating to other
individuals, groups and organizations. They are very
much related to motives, attitudes and emotions that are
responsible for right and wrong conduct of an
individual.
• It is noted that professionalism is mainly based on the
virtues rather than the technological development,
knowledge, economy etc.
 Professional Ideals and Virtues
• Do engineers need virtues?
• According to a professional code of ethics, the
professionals’ responsibilities include virtues
that go beyond the basic duties of their
professions.
• Honesty, Fair-mindedness, Reliability,
Integrity, Benevolence, Perseverance, Public-
spiritedness, Compassion, Kindness, and
Generosity etc. are associated with the
virtues of a person.
• Thus, virtues are basics of engineering
profession as well as other professions.
Professional Ideals and Virtues
• Theories about Virtues
• In virtue one’s actions
ethics, considered he/she are holds
right if traits; one actions aregood
character considered
wrong if he/she holds bad character traits.
• The two basic old- theories
good virtues are; about
1. Aristotle’s Theory
2. Macintyre’s Theory
 Professional Ideals and Virtues
• Aristotle Theory of the ‘Golden Mean’
• Aristotle defined the virtues as acquired habits that
enable an individual to engage effectively in rational
activities. That is, the activities define him/her as a
human being.
• According to his theory, the virtue of wisdom or good
judgment is highly essential for accomplishing the
rational activities successfully.
• As per this theory, virtues are tendency to find the
‘Golden Mean’ between extreme of excess and
deficiency.
• For example,
Courage, Truthfulness, Generosity, Friendliness
 Professional Ideals and Virtues
• Aristotle Theory of the ‘Golden
Mean’
(contd.)
• Aristotle also emphasized that the ‘Golden
Mean’ of each virtue will govern a particular
aspect
• For of our lives. courage governs
instance,
confrontation with danger and
truthfulness governs truth-telling;
risk;
generosity governs giving;
friendliness gov and personal
relationships. erns
 Professional Ideals and Virtues
• Macintyre’s Theory of Virtue
• Macintyre, a contemporary ethicist, related
virtues with the social practices, i.e.,
cooperative activities that are aimed at
achieving public goods. These public goods
should not be related to external goods such
as money and prestige.
• According to Macintrye, any profession
should develop for the sake of public goods.
He calls these public goods as internal
goods.
 Professional Ideals and Virtues
• Macintyre’s Theory of Virtue (contd.)
• Examples illustrating internal goods
• The Primary internal good of medicine
is the promotion of health.
• The primary internal good of law is
social justice.
• The primary internal good of engineering is the
safety, health and welfare of the public.
• The theory also defines professionalism as the
services required for accomplishing the public
goods, in addition to the practice of advanced
theoretical and practical knowledge.
 THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION
(ETHICAL THEORIES)
Uses and Criteria
The ethical theories are useful in many respects.
1. In understanding moral dilemma. They provide clarity,
consistency, systematic and comprehensive understanding.
2. Ethical theories aid in identifying the moral considerations
or reasons that constitute a dilemma.
3. Ethical theories provide a more precise sense of what
kinds of information are relevant to solving moral
dilemmas.
4. It provides helpful practical guidance in moral issues
towards the solution. Sometimes it offer ways to rank the
relevant moral considerations in order of importance and
thereby provide at least rough guidance in solving moral
problems
 THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT
ACTION (ETHICAL
5. THEORIES)…..
The theories suggest a general priority of the obligation to protect the
public
i)The special importance of rights to life and to informed
consent concerning risks to one’s life.
ii) the importance of duties to protect the vulnerable public
iii)Thedegree of immorality involved in death and risk of
death compared to economic benefits to corporations.
6. Justifying professional obligations and decisions, and
7. By providing frameworks for development of moral arguments ,the
theories strengthen our ability to reach balanced and insightful
judgments.
8. In relating ordinary and professional morality. The theories augment
the precision with which we use moral terms and they provide frame
works for moral reasoning when discussing moral issues
9. It provides a systematic framework for comparing the alternatives.
Different criteria may be applied for evaluating
various ethical theories and deciding upon the
best
1. The theory must be clear and (coherent) formulated with concepts
that are logically connected.
2. It must be internally consistent, i.e., none of its principles conflicts
with any other
3. The theory and its defense must depend, only upon facts.
4. It must organize basic moral values in systematic and
comprehensive manner. It is to fix priority of values and provide
guidance in all situations
5. It must provide guidance compatible with our moral convictions
(judgments) about concrete situations. For example, if an ethical
theory says that it is all right for engineers to make explosive
devices without the informed consent of the public, we can
conclude that the theory is inadequate.
 THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT
ACTION (ETHICAL
 Theories and judgments are continually adjusted to each
THEORIES)
other until we reach a reflective equilibrium. Most of the
theories converge towards the welfare of the humanity.
 The duty ethics and right ethics differ in great extent on
their emphasis. But they remain complementary always.
Ethical Theories/Approaches
Several ethical theories have been developed over different
times, each of them stressing certain ethical principles or
features. Each stresses a view and many a times, we find that
these theories converge and reinforce the ethics, in deciding
upon the actions and justifying the results.
 THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION
(ETHICAL THEORIES)
Ethical theories / Approaches
1. Utilitarian Theory
2. Duty Ethics Theory
3. Rights Theory
4. The Virtue Theory
5. Self Realization Ethics
6. Justice (Fairness) Theory
 1. Utilitarian Theory
 The term Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy
Bentham and John Stuart Mill to help legislators determine which
laws were morally best.
 They suggested that the standard of right conduct is maximization of
good consequences. Good consequences mean either ‘utilities’ or the
‘balance of good over evil’.
 This approach weighs the costs and benefits. Right actions are the
ones that produce the greatest satisfaction of the preferences of the
affected persons. In analyzing an issue in this approach, we have to:
 The term Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy
Bentham and John Stuart Mill to help legislators determine which
laws were morally best. They suggested that the standard of right
conduct is maximization of good consequences. Good consequences
mean either ‘utilities’ or the ‘balance of good over evil’.
 1. Utilitarian Theory……..
 This approach weighs the costs and benefits. Right actions are the ones that
produce the greatest satisfaction of the preferences of the affected persons.
In analyzing an issue in this approach, we have to:
(a) Identify the various courses of action available to us.
(b)Ask who will be affected by each action and what benefits or harms will
be derived from each.
(c) Choose the action that will produce the greatest benefits and the least
harm. The ethical action is the one that provides the greatest good for the
greatest number.
 The ACT UTILITARIAN theory proposed by J.S. Mill (1806-73)
focuses on actions, rather than on general rules. An action is right, if it
generates the most overall good for the most people involved.
 The RULE UTILITARIAN theory, developed by Richard Brandt
(1910-97), stressed on the rules, such as ‘do not steal’, ‘do no harm
others’, ‘do not bribe’, as of primary importance. He suggested that
individual actions are right when they are required by set of rules which
maximizes the public good.
 1. Utilitarian Theory……..
 The act utilitarian theory permitted a few immoral actions.
Hence, there was need to develop rule utilitarian theory to
establish morality and justice, in the transactions.
 For example, stealing an old computer from the employer will
benefit the employee more than the loss to the employer. As per
Act, utilitarian this action is right.
 But rule utilitarian observes this as wrong, because the
employee should act as ‘faithful agent or trustee of the
employees’.
 In another example, some undisciplined engineers are
terminated with the blame for the mistakes they have not
committed.
 The process is unfair although this results in promotion of
overall good.
 2. Duty Ethics theory
A. The duty ethics theory, proposed by Immanuel Kant (1724-
1804) states, that actions are consequences of performance of
one’s duties such as, ‘being honest’, ‘not cause suffering of
others’, ‘being fair to others including the meek and week’,
‘being grateful’, ‘keeping promises’ etc. The stress is on the
universal principle of respect for autonomy i.e., respect and
rationality of persons. As per Kant we have duties to
ourselves, as we are rational and autonomous beings. We have
a duty not to commit suicide; a duty to develop our talents
and a duty to avoid harmful drugs. Kant insisted that moral
duties are categorical imperatives.
They are commands that we impose on ourselves as well as
other rational beings. For example, we should be honest
because honesty is required by duty. A businessman is to be
honest because honesty pays — in terms of profits from
 2. Duty Ethics theory
B. On the other hand, the DUTY ethics theory, as enunciated by John
Rawl, gave importance to the actions that would be voluntarily
agreed upon by all persons concerned, assuming impartiality. His
view emphasized the autonomy each person exercises in forming
agreements with other rational people. Rawl proposed two basic
moral principles; (1) each person is entitled to the most extensive
amount of liberty compatible with an equal amount for others, and
(2) differences in social power and economic benefits are justified
only when they are likely to benefit everyone, including members
of the most disadvantaged groups. The first principle is of prime
importance and should be satisfied first. Without basic liberties
other economic or social benefits cannot be sustained for long. The
second principle insists that to allow some people with great wealth
and power is justified only when all other groups are benefited. In
the business scenario, for example, the free enterprise is
permissible so far it provides the capital needed to invest and
prosper, thereby making job opportunities to the public and taxes to
 2. Duty Ethics theory…..
C.W.D. Ross, the British philosopher introduced the term prima facie duties,
which means duties might have justified exceptions. In fact, most duties are
prima facie ones; some may have obligatory or permissible exceptions. Ross
assumed that the prima facie duties are intuitively obvious (self-evident),
while fixing priorities among duties. He noted that the principles such as ‘Do
not kill’ and ‘protect innocent life’ involve high respect for persons
than other principles such as, ‘Do not lie’ (less harmful). This theory is
criticized on the fact, that the intuitions do not provide sufficient guideline
for moral duty. He has listed various aspects of Duty Ethics that reflect our
moral convictions, namely:
1. Fidelity : duty to keep promises.
2. Reparation : duty to compensate others when we harm them.
3. Gratitude : duty to thank those who help us.
4. Justice : duty to recognize merit.
5.Beneficence : duty to recognize inequality and improve the condition of
others.
6. Self-improvement : duty to improve virtue and intelligence.
7. Non-malfeasance : duty not to injure others.
 3. Rights Theory
 Rights are entitlement to act or to have another individual act in a certain way.
Minimally, rights serve as a protective barrier, shielding individuals from
unjustified infringement of their moral agency by others. For every right, we
have a corresponding duty of noninterference.
 The RIGHTS approach to ethics has its roots in the 18th century philosopher
Immanuel Kant, who focused on the individual’s right to choose for oneself.
People are not objects to be manipulated; it is a violation of human dignity to
use people in ways they do not freely choose. Other rights he advocated are:
1. The right to access the truth: We have a right to be told the truth and to be
informed about matters that significantly affect our choices.
2. The right of privacy: We have the right to do, believe, and say whatever we
choose in our personal lives so long as we do not violate the rights of others.
3. The right not to be injured: We have the right not to be harmed or injured
unless we freely and knowingly do something to deserve punishment or we
freely and knowingly choose to risk such injuries.
4. The right to what is agreed: We have a right to what has been promised by
those with whom we have freely entered into a contract or agreement.
 3. Rights Theory……
 The RIGHTS theory as promoted by John Locke states that the actions
are right, if they respect human rights of every one affected. He
proposed the three basic human rights, namely life, liberty, and
property. His views were reflected in the modern American society,
when Jefferson declared the basic rights as life, liberty, and pursuit of
happiness.
 As per A.I. Melden’s theory based on rights, nature mandates that we
should not harm others’ life, health, liberty or property. Melden allowed
welfare rights also for living a decent human life. He highlighted that
the rights should be based on the social welfare system.
 Human rights: Human rights are explained in two forms, namely liberty
rights and welfare rights. Liberty rights are rights to exercise one’s
liberty and stresses duties on other people not to interfere with one’s
freedom. The four features of liberty rights (also called moral rights),
which lay the base for Government Administration, are:
 3. Rights Theory……
 1. Rights are natural in so far as they are not invented or created by
government.
 2. They are universal, as they do not change from country to country.
 3. They are equal since the rights are the same for all people,
irrespective of caste, race, creed or sex.
 4. They are inalienable i.e., one cannot hand over his rights to another
person such as selling oneself to slavery.
 Economic rights: In the free-market economy, the very purpose of
the existence of the manufacturer, the sellers and the service providers
is to serve the consumer.
 The consumer is eligible to exercise some rights.
 The consumers’ six basic rights are: Right to Information, Right to
Safety, Right to Choice, Right to be Heard, Right to Redressal, and
Right to Consumer Education.
 4. The Virtue Theory
 This emphasizes on the character rather than the rights or duties. The
character is the pattern of virtues (morally-desirable features). The theory
advocated by Aristotle, stressed on the tendency to act at proper balance
between extremes of conduct, emotion, desire, attitudes to find the golden
mean between the extremes of ‘excess’ or ‘deficiency’
 5. Self- realization Ethics
 Right action consists in seeking self-fulfillment.
 In one version of this theory, the self to be realized is
defined by caring relationships with other individuals and
society.
 In another version called ethical egoism, the right
action consists in always promoting what is good for
oneself.
 No caring and society relationships are assumed
 6. Justice (Fairness) Theory
 The justice or fairness approach to ethics has its roots in the
teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who said
that “equals should be treated equally and unequals
unequally.”
 The basic moral question in this approach is: How fair is an
action? Does it treat everyone in the same way, or does it show
favoritism and discrimination?
 Issues create controversies simply because we do not bother to
check the fairness or justice.
 Favoritism gives benefits to some people without a
justifiable reason for singling them out; discrimination
imposes burdens on people who are no different from those
on whom burdens are not imposed.
 Both favoritism and discrimination are unjust and wrong.
 Self-interest
 Self-interest is being good and acceptable to oneself. It
is pursuing what is good for oneself.
 It is very ethical to possess self-interest.
 As per utilitarian theory, this interest should
provide for the respect of others also.
 Duty ethics recognizes this aspect as duties
to ourselves.
 Then only one can help others. Right ethicist stresses
our rights to pursue our own good.
 Virtue ethics also accepts the importance of
self- respect as link to social practices.
 Customs
 Ethical Pluralism: Various cultures in our pluralistic society lead to
tolerance for various customs, beliefs and outlooks. Accordingly,
ethical pluralism also exists. Although many moral attitudes appear
to be reasonable, the rational and morally concerned people cannot
fully accept any one of the moral perspectives.
 Ethical Relativism: According to this principle, actions are
considered morally right when approved by law or custom, and
wrong when they violate laws or customs. The deciding factor is the
law or the customs of the society.
 Should we accept the principle of relativism or not?
 Apartheid law of South Africa violated human rights of the native
Africans. No legal action was available for native citizens for a long
time. Now, of course, these laws have been repealed.
 As per ethical relativism, the actions and laws of Nazis and Hitler who
vowed on Anti-Semitism and killed several million Jews would be
accepted as right.
 Religion
 Religions have played major roles in shaping moral views
and moral values, over geographical regions. Christianity
has influenced the Western countries, Islam in the Middle-
East countries, Buddhism and Hinduism in Asia, and
Confucianism in China.
 Further, there is a strong psychological link between the
moral and religious beliefs of people following various
religions and faiths. Religions support moral
responsibility.
 They have set high moral standards. Faith in the religions
provides trust and this trust inspires people to be moral.
 The religions insist on tolerance and moral concern for
others. Many professionals who possess religious beliefs
are motivated to be morally responsible.
 Religion ………..
 Each religion lays stress on certain high moral standards. For
example, Hinduism holds polytheistic (many gods) view, and virtues
of devotion and surrender to high order.
 Christianity believes in one deity and emphasizes on virtues of Love,
Faith, and Hope. Buddhism is non-theistic and focuses on
compassion and Islam on one deity and adherence of ishan (piety or
pursuit of excellence) and prayer.
 Judaism stresses the virtue of ‘tsedakah’ (righteousness). But many
religious sects have adopted poor moral standards, e.g., many
religious sects do not recognize equal rights for women.
 The right to worship is denied for some people.
 People are killed in the name of or to promote religion.
 Thus, conflicts exist between the ‘secular’ and religious people and
between one religion and another.
 Hence, religious views have to be morally scrutinized.
 Use of Ethical Theories
The ethical theories are useful in many
respects.
1. In understanding moral dilemma. They provide
clarity, consistency, systematic and
comprehensive understanding.
2. It provides helpful practical guidance in moral
issues towards the solution.
3. Justifying professional obligations and
decisions, and
4. In relating ordinary and professional morality.
 Use of Ethical Theories
1. Understanding Moral Dilemma
• Ethical theories help the
professionals in identifying the moral
considerations or reasons.
• ‘Virtual ethics’ emphasizes loyalty to employer and
colleagues and loyalty to public including the safety of
the public.
• ‘Duty Ethics’ emphasizes that professional has duties to
protect the public affected by his work. Also he/she has
to respect his employer’s authority.
• ‘Rights ethics’ emphasizes the rights of the public that
are to be protected while at the same time, the rights of
the management have to be respected.
• Ethical theories provide relevant
 Use of Ethical Theories
1. Understanding Moral Dilemma (contd.)
• Ethical theories offer ways to rank the relevant
moral considerations in order of importance and
thereby provide a rough guidance in solving
moral problems.
• Ethical theories help us to find alternative courses
of section in solving moral dilemmas.
• Ethical theories strengthen our ability to reach
balanced judgments.
 Use of Ethical Theories
2. Justifying professional obligations and ideals
• Safety is involved in most of the issues in engineering ethics.
Engineering focuses on safety of public while bringing useful
technological products to the public.
• Under ‘the Act Utilitarian theory’, one of the obligations of
engineers is to act in any situation so as to maximize the good
consequences for every one affected by engineering projects and
products.
• ‘The Rule Utilitarian theory’ stresses on the rules (such as ‘do
not steal’, ‘do not harm others’, ‘do not bribe’) as of primary
importance.
• Duty ethics emphasizes the obligations of engineers based on basic
principles of duty.
• Right ethics emphasizes the safety obligations based on the moral
rights of those affected by their work.
• Definitiely, there is a direct link between basic human rights and
safety obligations of engineers.
 Use of Ethical Theories
3. Relating ordinary and professional morality
There are four views concerning the origin and justification of the
safety obligation of engineers.
• Engineers acquire moral obligations concerning safety by
being subject to laws.
• Engineers acquire safety obligations by joining a
professional society and thereby agree to live by the code of
ethics of the society.
• Engineers acquire safety obligations through the contractual
agreements by which they are hired by their employers.
• Engineers acquire safety obligations upon entering into their
careers, to protect and safeguard the public interests while
performing their tasks.
However, each of these four views proves to be inadequate
by itself without reference to ethical theory.