Powder-Metal Processing and Equipment

Powder Metallurgy

•Metal powders are compacted into desired

and often complex shapes and sintered* to
form a solid piece

•* Sinter: To heat without melting

Introduction
• Metal components are made by compacting metal powders in suitable
dies and sintering them
• The process is attractive because of
- the capability of net-shape forming
- the economics of the overall operations
• Typical products
Gears, cams, bushings, cutting tools, porous products (filters and oil
impregnated bearings), automotive components (piston rings, valve
guides, connecting rods, hydraulic pistons, etc.
• Recent advances in powder metallurgy led to produce parts of aircraft
(landing gears, engine mount supports, engine disk, impellers, engine
nacelle frame, etc.
• Materials usually handled are
- pure metal: Fe, Cu, Al, Sn, Ni, Ti, refractory metals
- alloys
- mixture of metallic and non-metallic materials
• P/M technology has become competitive with casting, forging and
machining
• Characteristics of parts
- good dimensional accuracy
- range of sizes – from tiny balls for ball-point pen to parts
weighing about 50 kg.
- most popular weigh less than 2.5 kg
• A typical family car now-a-days contains, on the average 11 kg of P/M
parts
P/M process
• P/M process consist of the following operations
- Powder production
- Blending
- Compaction
- Sintering
- Finishing operations
For special application, additional processing such as coining, sizing,
forging, machining, infiltration, re-sintering, ect. may be carried out.
Method of Powder Production
• There are several methods
• Metal sources are
- bulk metals and alloys
- ores
- other components
• Choice of a powder production method depends on the requirements
of the end product.
• Particle size ranges from 0.1 μm to 1000 μm
Powder characteristics
• Powder characteristics are important because they influence
- permeability and flow characteristics during compaction
- behavior in sintering process
Atomization
• A liquid metal stream is produced by injecting molten metal through a
small orifice
• The stream is broken by jets of the inert gas/air/water
• Size of particle formed depends on
- the temperature of the metal
- the rate of flow
- the nozzle size
- jet characteristics
Consumable electrode
• Consumable electrode is rotated rapidly in the helium-filled chamber
• Centrifugal force breaks up the molten tip of the electrode, producing
metal powders
FIGURE 17.5 Methods of metal-powder production by atomization:
(a) gas atomization; (b) water atomization;
(c)centrifugal atomization with a spinning disk or cup; and
(d)atomization with a rotating consumable electrode.
Reduction
• Gases such as H2 and CO are used as reducing agents to remove O2
from metal oxides
• Very fine metallic oxides are reduced to the metallic state
• Powders are spongy and porous having uniformly sized
spheres/angular shapes.
Carbonyls
• Metal carbonyls such as Fe (CO)5 , Ni(CO)4 ect. are formed by letting
iron and nickel to react with carbon monoxide
• These carbonyls are decomposed to iron/nickel
• Thus small, dense and uniform spherical particles of high quality are
produced
Communication
• Communication (pulverization) involves crushing/milling/grinding
brittle or less ductile metal into small particles
• With brittle materials powder particles have angular shapes
• With ductile metals, they are flaky (not suitable for P/M processing)
Mechanical Alloying
• Powders of two or more pure metals are mixed in a ball-mill
• Under the impact of hard balls, the powder fracture and weld
together by diffusion
• Thus alloy powder are formed
FIGURE 17.6 Methods of mechanical comminution to obtain fine particles: (a) roll crushing, (b) ball mill, and (c) hammer
milling.
Other methods
• Precipitation from a chemical solution
• Production of fine metal chips by machining
• Vapor condensation
 FIGURE 17.7 Mechanical alloying of nickel particles with dispersed smaller particles. As nickel
particles are flattened between two balls, the second, smaller phase is impressed into the nickel
surface and eventually is dispersed throughout the particle due to successive flattening, fracture,
and welding events.
Particle size, distribution and shape
• Particle size usually measured by screens (sieves)
• Stack of screens with increasing mesh size
• Powder flows downward through the screens
Other methods
A. Sedimentation: involves measuring rate at which particles settle in a
fluid
B. Microscopic analysis: Use TEM/SEM
C. Light scattering from a laser: A sample of particles suspended in a
liquid medium
- particle cause the light to be scattered
- A detector focusing the scattering
Shape of particles
• Influence the processing characteristics
• Described by aspect ratio / shape index
• Aspect ratio – largest dimension / smallest dimension
• Shape index/shape factor – a measure of the surface area to volume
w.r.t. a spherical particle of equivalent diameter
• Thus shape factor is higher than that for sphere
FIGURE 17.8 (a) through (d) Some common bowl geometries for mixing or blending powders. (e) A
mixer suitable for blending metal powders. Since metal powders are abrasive, mixers rely on the
rotation or tumbling of enclosed geometries, as opposed to using aggressive agitators. Source:
Courtesy of Kemutec Group, Inc.
Blending of metal powders
- This is second step of P/M carried out for the following purposes
• Powders from different sources have different size and shapes must
be mixed to obtain uniformity
• To impart special properties, powders of different metals/materials
may be mixed
• Lubricants may be mixed to improve flow characteristics (less die-wall
friction)
- Blending must be carried out in controlled conditions to avoid
contamination
- Excessive mixing may change the shape and work-harden the particles
- Subsequent processing become more difficult
- Several types of blending equipment
Blending hazards
• Because of higher s/v ratio, metal powders become explosive
• Great care necessary
FIGURE 17.9 (a) Compaction of metal powder to form a bushing. The pressed-powder
part is called green compact. (b) Typical tool and die set for compacting a spur gear.
Source: Courtesy of the Metal Powder Industries Federation.
Compaction of metal powders
• Blended powders pressed to provide a shape
• Hydraulically / mechanically actuated presses
Purposes of compaction
• To obtain a desired / required shape
• To obtain particle-to-particle contact
• To make the part strong enough for handling
• The pressed powder is known as green compact or green body
• Usually carried out at room temperature (though possible at elevated
temperature)
• Compatibility curve – higher pressure, higher density but diminishing
effect
• Example: A box full of tennis ball (distribution should be wide –
smaller particles fill up the spaces between large particles)
• Higher density, higher will be the strength and the elastic modulus
• Density gradient – effect of inter-particle friction, powder and die-wall
friction, punch and die-wall friction
• Higher pressing speed does not allow to get rid of the trapped gas/air
in the powder
 FIGURE 17.10 (a) Density of copper- and iron-powder compacts as a function of compacting
pressure. Density greatly influences the mechanical and physical properties of PM parts. (b) Effect of
density on tensile strength, elongation, and electrical conductivity of copper powder. Source: (a) After
F.V. Lenel, (b) After the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) for electrical conductivity.
 FIGURE 17.11 Density variation in compacting metal powders in various dies: (a) and (c) single-
action press; (b) and (d) double-action press. Note in (d) the greater uniformity of density from
pressing with two punches with separate movements compared with (c). (e) Pressure contours in
compacted copper powder in a single-action press. Source: After P. Duwez and L. Zwell.
TABLE 17.1 Compacting Pressures for Various Powders
FIGURE 17.12 A 7.3-MN (825-ton) mechanical press for compacting metal powder.
Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Incorporated.
 FIGURE 17.13 Schematic diagram of cold isostatic pressing. Pressure is applied
isostatically inside a high-pressure chamber. (a) The wet bag process to form a cup-
shaped part. The powder is enclosed in a flexible container around a solid-core rod. (b)
The dry bag process used to form a PM cylinder.
Isostatic pressing
• Problem of density gradient in die compaction is solved
• Figure shows the process of CIP (cold Isostatic pressing)
• In CIP, powder placed in a flexible rubber mold and then pressed
hydrostatically in a chamber
• Very high pressure can be applied (400 MPa is common, a maximum
of upto 1000 MPa if needed.
 FIGURE 17.13 Schematic diagram of cold isostatic pressing. Pressure is applied
isostatically inside a high-pressure chamber. (a) The wet bag process to form a cup-
shaped part. The powder is enclosed in a flexible container around a solid-core rod. (b)
The dry bag process used to form a PM cylinder.
 FIGURE 17.15 Schematic illustration of hot isostatic pressing. The
pressure and temperature variation versus time are shown in the diagram.
Hot isostatic pressing
• Container is usually made of a high melting point sheet metal
• Pressurizing medium is inert gas / vitreous (glass like) fluid
• Common condition – 1000 MPa at 1100 C
• Recent advances led to apply higher pressure and temperature
Advantages of Isostatic pressing
• Parts with high aspect ratio can be produced (Figure shows capabilities of
various processes)
• Very uniform density, strength and toughness and good surface details
achievable
• Pressure can be applied uniformly from all directions
• Irrespective of shape, compacts of practically uniform grain structure,
density are produced
• Application of HIP is restricted in making superalloy components (for
aerospace use)
• Also routinely used as a final densification step for WC cutting tools
• HIP has the ability to produce parts with essentially 100% density
• Good metallurgical bonding among particles
• Good mechanical properties
• Compared to die compaction isostatic pressing is expensive
• HIP is even more expensive
Rooling
Powder rolling (also called roll compaction)
• Powder fed to the gap in two-high roiling mill
• Powder is compacted into a continuous strip (speed up to 0.5 m/s)
• Process can be carried out at room or elevated temperature
• Application – sheet metal for electrical/electronic components, for
coins, etc.
Injection molding
• Used for components for watches, guns, automobiles and surgical
knives
• Relatively complex shapes with wall thickness as small as 5 mm
Pressureless compaction
• Die is filled with metal powder gravity
• Powder sintered directly in the die
• Used practically for making porous parts such as filters
FIGURE 17.16 A valve lifter for heavy-duty diesel engines produced from a hot-isostatic-
pressed carbide cap on a steel shaft. Source: Courtesy of the Metal Powder Industries
Federation.
 Powder-Injection Molding
(An alternative to conventional compaction)

•Very fine metal powders are blended with a 25 – 45% polymer

or a wax-based binder
•Mixture is injected into a mold at 135o – 200oC
•Debinding: Molded green parts placed in oven to burn off the
plastic
•Sinter (up to 1375oC)

Useful to make complex shapes with small wall thickness

FIGURE 17.17 Powder-metal components for mobile phones to
achieve a flip-open feature.
FIGURE 17.18 An illustration of powder rolling.
FIGURE 17.19 Spray deposition (Osprey process) in which molten metal
is sprayed over a rotating mandrel to produce seamless tubing and pipe.
TABLE 17.2 Sintering Temperature and Time for Various Metals
FIGURE 17.20 Schematic illustration of two mechanisms for sintering metal powders: (a) solid-state
material transport; and (b) vapor-phase material transport. R = particle radius, r = neck radius, and 
= neck- profile radius.
Sintering
It is a process where
• The green body is heated in a controlled atmosphere
• To a temperature sufficiently high to allow bonding (fusion) of the individual particles
• Strength and nature of the fired body depend on
- mechanism of diffusion
- plastic flow
- evaporation of volatile materials in the compact
- recrystallization
- grain growth
- pore shrinkage
• Principal governing variables
- temperature
- time
- atmosphere in the furnace
• Sintering temperature usually lies within 70-90% of the melting point
of the metal/alloy
• Sintering time ranges from 10 min (for Fe, Cu) to as much as 8 hrs (W,
Ta).
Furnaces
• Continuous sintering furnaces are used for most production
• These are equipped with three chambers
1. Burn-off chamber
2. High temperature chamber
3. Cooling chamber
• Proper control of the furnace temperature is essential for
- successful sintering
- obtaining optimal properties
• Oxygen free atmosphere is necessary for
- carburization/decarburization of Fe and Fe-base compacts
- preventing oxidation
• Vacuum is generally important for refractory metal alloys/stainless steel
• Gases commonly used are
- hydrogen
- dissociated or burned ammonia
- partially combusted hydrocarbon gases
- nitrogen
TABLE 17.3 Mechanical Properties of Selected PM Materials
TABLE 17.4 Comparison of Mechanical Properties of Some Wrought and
Equivalent PM Metals (as Sintered)
TABLE 17.5 Mechanical Property Comparisons for Ti-6AL-4V
Titanium Alloy