CE 201

Engineering Materials

Cement
 What is Cement?
What is Cement?
 Cement is a cementing (binding) material that can hold things
together. It is a substance that sets and hardens independently.
 It is manufactured from calcareous material (compounds of
calcium and magnesium, example limestone) and argillaceous
material (mainly silica, alumina and oxides of iron example clay)
 Related Terms
Calcareous materials: Compounds of Ca and Mg; e.g. limestone,
dolomite etc.

Argillaceous materials: Materials include of silica, alumina

and iron oxide such as clay, slate, shale etc.
Non Hydraulic Cement: The cement that does not set under water.
It is not stable in water.

Hydraulic Cement: The cement that sets and after

hardens combining with water. It is stable in water.

Calcining: Use heat to break apart chemical compounds.

 History of Cement
Non Hydraulic Cement:
This type of cement was used by ancient Egyptians, Greeks and
Romans.
 Calcium oxide (lime) is produced from calcium carbonate
(limestone) by calcination at temperatures above 2,200 °F for
about 10 hours at atmospheric pressure:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
(Calcining)
 The calcium oxide is then mixed with water to make slaked
lime
(calcium hydroxide slurry):
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 (aq)
 Calcium hydroxide absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere and they
actually forms artificial limestone. This limestone is soluble
in water it could not be used in high moisture environments.
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 → CaCO3(s) + H2O
 History of Cement
Disadvantages:
 It is unsuitable in wet conditions.
 This type of cement takes a long time to gain enough strength to
be usable.
Due to its lack of versatility and the fact it relies on such
controlled conditions in order to drying, issues that arise with a
long drying period, the use of non-hydraulic cement is becoming
less and less common.

Roman Cement: (Hydraulic Cement)

The origin of hydraulic cements goes back to ancient Greece and
Rome. This type of cement is stable in water.
 History of Cement
 CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
(Calcining)

 The materials used were lime and volcanic ash that slowly
reacted
X(CaO) +ofY(SiO
with it in the presence water2) to → XCaO.
form YSiO
a hard mass.
2
Quick Lime Reactive Silica Calcium
from volcanic ash Silicate

(XCaO. YSiO2) + Z H2O → XCaO. YSiO2. Z H2O

Calcium Silicate Hydrate
(C-S-H)
 This formed the cementing material of the Roman In Cement
mortars and concretes of more than 2,000 years
chemistry,
ago and of subsequent construction work in CaO = C
western Europe. SiO2 = S
H2O = H
 History of Cement
 The best source of volcanic ash was from Pozzuli, Italy.

Advantages:
 It is suitable in wet conditions.
 Roman concrete is more durable than modern concrete, but
it actually gets stronger over time.

Disadvantages:
 The properties of this cement is variable.
 Strength gaining rate is slower than the modern cement. It
takes a
significant amount of time to gain strength.
 History of Cement

Colosseum, Rome, Italy The Pantheon, Rome, Italy

Roman Aqueduct
 History of Cement
Modern Cement: (Portland Cement)

 The next development, taking place about 1800 in England

and France, was a material obtained by replacing volcanic ash
with clay. Since Clay is not as reactive as volcanic ash, more
heat is required.
2CaO + SiO2 → 2 CaO.
SiO2 = C2S
Dicalcium Silicate
(Belite)

This cement can solve the problem of availability of

volcanic ash
but it takes several months to gain strength.
 History of Cement
 Portland cement, arguably one of mankind’s most important
manufactured materials, was invented and patented by Joseph
Aspdin from Leeds in 1824. Aspdin produced cement by heating
powdered limestone mixed with clay in a furnace, and grinding
the resulting clinker to a powder. Joseph Aspdin called his
invention "Portland cement" because of its resemblance to
Portland stone. However, Aspdin's cement was nothing like
modern Portland cement, but was a first step in the development
of modern Portland cement.
 Aspdin’s cement was improved in 1843 by his son William, by
using larger amount of CaO and a higher temperature.

3CaO + SiO2 → 3CaO. SiO2 (C3S)

Tricalcium Silicate
(Alite)
 Manufacturing of Cement
Manufacturing of cement:
 Dry Process
 Wet Process

Wet Process:
In the manufacturing of cement, the following three important
operations occur:
 Mixing of raw materials
 Burning of raw materials
 Grinding

The Raw material, which is used for manufacturing of cement,

contains the following materials:

 Calcareous Material (i.e. chalk consists of limestone)

 Argillaceous Material (i.e. clay consists of silicates of
alumina)
 Manufacturing of Cement
Mixing of Raw Materials:
 Initially, Calcareous materials are crushed using crushers and
forwarded to tube mills to convert ground and fine powder,
which is further stored in storage tank known as silos.
 Argillaceous material is washed with water in the container.
 Both the materials (powdered lime stone and washed clay)
are intimately mixed in the presence of water and to form
a fine thin paste known as slurry.
 This slurry is finally stored and fed in rotary kiln.
 Manufacturing of Cement
Burning of Raw Materials:
 In this operation, the slurry is directly fed into a long inclined steel
cylinder called a rotary kiln. In this kiln there are 3 different
zones. 1. Drying zone, 2.Calcination zone, 3.Clinker zone.

Drying Zone:
 The upper part of the kiln is known as drying zone.
 In this zone, water is evaporated at a temperature of 100-400°C.
Calcination Zone:
 The central part of the kiln at a temperature of 1000°C.
 CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
 Carbon dioxide evaporates from the slurry and small lumps
formed which may be called nodules.
 Manufacturing of Cement
Clinker Zone:
 The nodules enter this zone where temperatures are
kept about 1400-1600° C.
3CaO + SiO2 → C3S (Tricalcium Silicate)
Alite 2CaO + SiO2 → C2S (Dicalcium
silicate) Belite
3CaO + Al2 O3→ C3A (Tricalcium Aluminate) Aluminate
4CaO + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 → C4AF (Tetracalcium Alumino Ferrite)

 The nodules are converted into dark greenish balls and the
product obtained in the kiln, known as clinker, is of varying
size 5 to 20 mm. The clinkers are very hot when coming
out of this zone.
 Manufacturing of Cement

Clinker Microscopic View of Clinker

 Manufacturing of Cement
Grinding:
 The clinkers are now cooled. The cooled clinkers are
finely ground in ball mills or tube mills.
 Then gypsum is added during grinding about 2-4%
Function of Gypsum in cement manufacturing process:
Gypsum is added to cement to control the initial setting time of
cement when water is added. Had gypsum not been added, the
cement would have set the moment the water is added to it,
without giving time for mixing, placing and finishing. Again, if
gypsum is added more than the small quantity then it would
delay the setting the time excessively. Therefore, gypsum must
be added as needed, not less and not more than that.
 Wet Process
Calcareous (limestone) Argillaceous (clay)

Crushing Crushing

Grinding Grinding

Storage Water

Mixing, Wet Grinding in Rotary Ball Mill

Slurry formation Coal

Rotary Kiln
Clinker-Formation Gypsum
Clinker-Grinding

Packing and Distribution

 Dry Process
Calcareous (limestone) Argillaceous (clay)

Crushing Crushing

Grinding Grinding

Storage Storage

Mixing in correct proportion

Storage of raw mix Coal

Rotary Kiln
Clinker-Formation Gypsum
Clinker-Grinding

Packing and Distribution

 Major Ingredients of Portland Cement

The percentage of major ingredients present in OPC is given

below:
Constituents Typical (%)
Lime (CaO) 62-65
Silica (SiO2) 17-25
Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8
MgO 1-4
Fe2O3 .1-6
SO3 1-3
Alkalies 1
Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) 2-4
 Functions of various ingredients present in OPC

Lime [CaO]:
 It plays a very important role on the quality of cement because it forms
about 63% of cement.
 Lime imparts strength and soundness to the cement.
 Excess use of lime will make cement unsound and cause it to expand and
disintegrate.
 A deficiency in lime reduces the strength of cement and causes it to
set quickly.

Silica [SiO2]
 Silicates are responsible for imparting strength to cement.
 It goes into chemical combination with calcium oxide and forms hard
silicates (C2S, C3S).
3CaO + SiO2 → C3S (Tricalcium Silicate) Alite
2CaO + SiO2 → C2S (Dicalcium silicate) Belite
 Excess presence of silica increases the cement strength but prolongs
the setting time of cement.
 Functions of various ingredients present in OPC
Alumina [Al2O3]
 Imparts the setting property to cement.
 Surplus amount of alumina leads to the reduction of strength.
3CaO + Al2 O3→ C3A (Tricalcium Aluminate) Aluminate
Iron oxide [Fe2O3]
 Imparts color.
 Increases strength and hardness of cement.

Magnesia [MgO]
 Imparts hardness and colour to the cement
 Presence of excess quantity seriously affects the soundness of cement.
Sulphur Trioxide [SO3]
 It is present in small quantities of about 1 - 3 % to make the cement
sound.
 Excess of sulphur trioxide causes the cement to become unsound.
 Functions of various ingredients present in OPC

Alkalies:
 Most of the alkalies present in the raw material are carried away by
the flue gases during heating and only small quantity will be left.
 If it is excess in cement, efflorescence is caused.

Calcium Sulfate: (Gypsum)

 This is present in cement in the form of gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O)
 It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.
 Chemical Compounds of OPC

Portland cement is made up of four main compounds

 Tricalcium Silicate (3CaO·SiO2)
 Dicalcium silicate (2CaO·SiO2)
 Tricalcium aluminate (3CaO·Al2O3) and
 Tetra-calcium aluminoferrite (4CaO·Al2O3.Fe2O3)

Oxide Name of
Name of Compound Abbreviation composition % Minerals in
clinker

Tricalcium silicate C3 S 3CaO.SiO2 50-70 Alite

Dicalcium silicate C2 S 2CaO.SiO2 15-30 Belite
Tricalcium aluminate C3A 3CaO.Al2O3 5-10 Aluminate

Tetracalcium C4AF 4CaO. Al2O3. 5-15 Ferrite

Fe2O3
aluminoferrite
 Functions of Mineral Constituents
C3S:
 Important mineral constituent imparting strength to cement.
 Contribute early strength and strength at all ages.
 Within a week after water is adding to it, substantial part of it reacts
with water and gets hydrated.
C2S:
 Slowest mineral compound to hydrate.
 Hydration continues for several weeks.
 Responsible for the progressive strength of cement, especially strength
gaining after a week of mixing.
C3A:
 The reaction of C3A with water is violent. The hydration completes in
a day. It liberates a lot of heat during the early stages of hydration, but
has little strength contribution.
 Mainly causes the setting action of cement.
 Functions of Mineral Constituents

C4AF
 Instantly reacts with water after mixing and are the first to hydrate.
 Having little influence on setting action.
 Does not contribute much to strength of the cement paste.

Hydration of Cement:
 Generally dry cement doesn’t bind with coarse and fine aggregates.
 It acquires the adhesive property only when mixed with water.
 The process by which cement reacts with water is termed ‘hydration’.

C 3S

C 2S Hydration
Water
of
C3A Cement

C3AF
 Hydration of Cement
 When water is added to cement, chemical reactions start
simultaneously between them.

 The different constituent compounds have different rates

of hydration.

 Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) and Tetracalcium Alumino Ferrite

(C4AF) react instantaneously with water and are the first to hydrate.
C3A+ 6H C3AH6
Where, C= CaO, H=H2O, S=SiO2, A=Al2O3

The reaction of C3A with water is violet and leads to immediate

stiffening of the paste, known as flash setting. To prevent this from
happening, gypsum is added to cement clinker grinding. Gypsum
and C3A react to form insoluble calcium sulpho-aluminate (which
does not hydrate) but eventually a tricalcium aluminate hydrate is
formed.
 Hydration of Cement
 Tricalcium silicate (C3S), the most important constituent compound is
next to hydrate and within a week a substantial part of it reacts with
water. It is mainly responsible for imparting strength to cement in
early days. It allows the handling and placing of concrete.
2C3S + 6H C3S2H3 + 3Ca(OH)2
 Dicalcium silicate (C2S) is the slowest constituent compound to
hydrate and continue the process for several days. This constituent
compound is responsible for the progressive strength of cement.

2C2S + 4H C3S2H3
+ Ca(OH)2
 C4AF hydrates to tricalcium aluminate hydrate and calcium ferrite
CaO.Fe2O3.
 Since calcium silicates (C3S and C2S) - are the main cement
compounds (occupies about 75% of cement weight) - they are
responsible for the final strength of the hardened cement paste.
 Hydration of Cement

Component Element Ca Si Al Fe

Component Oxides CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3

Cement Compounds C3S C2S C3A C4AF

H 2O

Hydration Products C-S-H gel Ca(OH)2

Hydration of Cement

Hydration

Products:
C-S-H
 Strength of Four Cement Compounds

 It can be seen it the figure that C3S gains most of the strength
developed in the first 2 to 3 weeks.

 C2S Contributes to long term strength, whereas C3A and C4AF

primarily contribute to early stiffening.
 Heat of Hydration
Heat of Hydration:
 When cement and water are mixed together the reactions which occur
are mostly exothermic- heat is produced. This is called ‘heat of
hydration’.

 The heat generated by the cement’s hydration raises the temperature

of
concrete.

 During normal concrete construction, the heat is dissipated into the

soil or the air and resulting temperature changes within the structure
are not significant.

 However, in some situations, particularly in massive structures, such

as dams, mat foundations the heat can not be readily released.
 Heat of Hydration
 In mass concrete, the temperature of the interior concrete may be much
higher than that of the exterior. The mass concrete may then attain
high internal temperatures, especially during hot weather construction,
or if high cement contents are used.

 Tricalcium silicate and tricalcium aluminate chemically generate more

heat, and at a faster rate, than dicalcium silicate or other cement
compounds. Cements with higher contents of tricalcium silicate and
tricalcium aluminate, as well as a higher fineness, have higher rates of
heat generation than other cements.

 High temperature can be controlled by placing concrete with low

initial temperature and replacing a portion of Portland cement with
slower reacting cementitious materials or reducing the cement content
by use of chemical admixtures, or both.
 Phases of Hydration
Stage 1: Pre-induction
Stage 2: Dormant period
Stage 3: Acceleration
Stage 4: Deceleration
Stage 5: Steady state
 Initial Setting Time & Final Setting Time
Initial Setting Time:
 Initial setting time is the time elapsed between the moment water is
added to cement and the time when the cement paste starts losing its
plasticity.
 It should not be less than 45 minutes (between 1 to 4 hours).

Final Setting Time:

 Final setting time is the time elapsed between the moment water is
added to cement and the time when the paste completely lost its
plasticity and can resist certain definite pressure.

 It should not be more than 375 minutes (between 3 to 6 hours).

 Setting time depends mainly on water-cement ratio, fineness of

cement.
 False Setting & Flash Setting
False Setting:
 False setting is the abnormal premature stiffening of cement within a
few minutes of mixing with water.
 It differs from flash setting in that no appreciable heat is evolved and
the remixing the cement paste without addition of further amount of
water restores plasticity of the paste until it sets in the normal manner
and without a loss of strength.
Causes of False setting:
 Dehydration of gypsum when interground with too hot clinker.
 Another cause of false setting may be associated with the excess
alkalies present in the cement.
Flash Setting (Quick Set):
 It is accompanied by the liberation of considerable heat.
 Plasticity of the mixture cannot be regained with additional mixing or
water.
Cause: If inadequate amounts or less amount of gypsum are added to the
cement, flash set can occur.
Khan Abid Ahsan, Lecturer, Department of CE,
 USA Classification of Cement

 Type I – General-Purpose
 Type II – Moderate Sulphate Resistance
 Type III – High Early Strength
 Type IV – Low Heat of Hydration
 Type V – High Sulfate Resistant.
Typical Compound Composition (USA Standard) of Portland
Cement

Cement ASTM C3S,% C2S,% by C3A,% by C3AF,% by Fineness,

Type C150/C150M by mass mass mass m2/kg
mass

I General- 57 15 9 8 384

Purpose
II Moderate 57 17 7 10 377
Sulfate
Resistance

III High Early 56 16 8 9 556

Strength

IV Low Heat of 42 32 4 15 340

Hydration

V High Sulfate 58 18 4 12 389

Resistant
General features of the main types of Portland cement by USA
standard
Type I (General Purpose):
 Type I is a general purpose cement suitable for all uses except where special
properties of the other types are required.
 It contains fairly high C3S content for good early strength development.
 It is used in most types of construction; for example, pavements,
bridges, reinforced concrete buildings, culverts etc.

Type II ( Moderate Sulfate Resistance):

 Type II is used where moderate sulfate resistance is required, for
drainage and
environmental structures in which sulfate concentration is higher than
normal, or for concrete exposed to seawater.
 It Contains low C3A content (<8%)

Type III (High Early Strength):

 Type III is used when rapid construction, cold weather concreting
are required.
 High strength can be achieved by increasing the fineness of cement.
General features of the main types of Portland cement by USA
standard
Type IV ( Low Heat of Hydration):
 Type IV is used when the amount of heat of hydration must be minimized;
for example, in massive structures such as gravity dams, where thermal
cracking is likely to occur.
 It contains low C3S content (<50%) and C3A

Type V (High Sulfate Resistance):

 Type v should be used when high sulfate resistance is required, such as when
concrete is exposed to severe sulfate attack with soils or ground waters
having a sulfate content.
 It contains very low C3A content (<5%)
Rates of Strength Development for Concrete made with different
cement types
 Blended Cement

 Portland Cement or clinker can be blended or interground with other

materials to achieve certain properties.

 These are called performance based cements. Cement mixtures

containing ordinary Portland cement (OPC, ASTM type I) and at least
one SCM are called blended cement.

 Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash and

ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume are often used in
blended cements.

 They may be used in addition to or as a partial replacement of portland

cement or blended cement in concrete to make concrete mixtures more
economical, reduce permeability, enhance durability, or influence other
concrete properties.

Khan Abid Ahsan, Lecturer, Department of CE,

 Pozzolans & Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM)

 A pozzolan is defined as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous

material, which in itself possesses little or no cementitious value but
which will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture,
chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to
form compounds possessing cementitious properties.
Pozzolanic Reaction:

Hydration reaction: Cement + Water C-S-H gel + Ca(OH)2 (Fast)

Pozzolanic Reaction : Pozzolan+ Ca(OH)2 + Water C-S-H gel (Slow)

Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM):

 A material that is used in combination with Portland cement,
contributes to the properties of the hardened
hydraulic or pozzolanic activity or both. concrete through
 Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM)

Typical example of SCMs are:

 Fly ash (Class C and Class F)
 Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag) and
 Silica Fume
 Fly Ash
Fly Ash:
 Fly ash is a fine residue resulting from the burning of powdered coal at high
temperatures. The most common sources of fly ash are electric power-
generating stations.
 It is the most widely used SCM.
 Types of Fly ash :
 Class F ( Less than 6% lime, CaO)
 Class C (More than 20% Lime, CaO)
 Intermediate Class (Lime content between 6% to 20%)
 Used as replacement of cement.
Comparison of chemical and physical characteristics of fly ash, silica fume
and OPC
 Fly Ash
 Main constituent of fly ash is silica. Glassy nanocrystalline forms of silica,
alumina, and iron are principally responsible for the pozzolanic reaction with
calcium hydroxide (lime).Other components of fly ash are calcium,
magnesium, sulfur, potassium, and sodium.

 Fly ash costs less than cement and so it reduces cost. Another benefit of fly
ash is that it is spherical and about the same size as cement grains. This
makes the concrete more workable.
 Class C and Class F fly ash have totally different performances. The class F are
pozzolans and consumes Calcium hydroxide. However this will take months.
This means the particles are largely inert during mixing and hydration. This
will also reduce early strengths. However they are great for durability. The
long term strength will be very high. Used for high sulfate exposure concretes.
 Type C fly ash can be quite variable depending on the source. Class C fly ash
with CaO> 30%, are mainly hydraulic cements, that work in combination
with OPC. Class C fly ash with 20%<CaO<30% are a blend of a hydraulic
cement and a pozzolan.
 Fly Ash
 Typical Class C fly ash (CaO > 30%) have good early strength gain.
 Class C fly ash is not used in high sulfate conditions.

Khan Abid Ahsan, Lecturer, Department of CE,

 Ground granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS)
Ground granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS)
 The glassy, granular material formed when molten blast-furnace slag (a by-
product of iron manufacture) is rapidly quenched (cooled); it is blended in
a pulverized state with portland cement to form hydraulic mixtures.

 It consists essentially of silica, or aluminosilica glass containing calcium

and other basic elements.

Slags can have the following impact on a concrete

mixture:

 Improves workability.
 Early strength gain decreases and later strength
increases.
 Resistance to chloride is improved.
 Reduces heat of hydration.
 Silica Fume
Silica Fume:
 Silica fume is a by-product of the silicon and ferrosilicon metal
manufacturing process produced in electric arc furnaces.
 Silica fume is composed primarily of silicon dioxide (SiO2).
 Particles are about 100 times smaller than the typical particles of
portland cement. So they can pack very well in cement grains, They also
react with Calcium hydroxide to from C-S-H. Hence it is used as a
pozzolan.
 This reduces permeability and increases strength.
 It decreases the workability of the mixture.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Blended Cement
Potential Benefits of Blended Cements:
 Finer than OPC.
 Higher long term (ultimate) strength due to its pozzolanic reaction.
 Improves workability of concrete and eases placing.
 Reduced water demand gives higher strength in concrete.
 Less bleeding and segregation due to its less water requirement.
 Less heat of hydration results in lower thermal expansion and less
possibility of thermal shrinkage crack afterwards.
 Higher resistance to chemical (sea water, acids, chloride,
sulphate)
attack.
 Lower permeability results in dense and durable concrete.
 Reduces green house gas emission.

Disadvantages:
 Longer initial setting time (slow rate of hydration)
 Lower early strength (slow strength development).
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Blended Cement
Higher long-term Strength gain:
 Fly ash normally results in lower early strength but it continues to combine with
free lime (pozzolanic reaction), increasing compressive strength over time.
 Many concretes containing fly ash, up to 35%, have similar 28-day
strength
gain characteristics as plain cement concrete. Properly designed concrete
mixtures containing fly ash can exhibit higher ultimate compressive strength
than Portland cement mixtures.
 Portland cement continues to hydrate and the rate of strength gain typically
slows down after about 28 days. Fly ash concretes, however, continue to gain
strength beyond 28 days at a rate greater than plain Portland cement concrete as
a result of continued pozzolanic reaction with available calcium hydroxide
inside the concrete.
 This effect can be seen in the following figure. Using 28-day strengths for
comparison, over time, plain Portland cement concrete generally gains about
30% additional strength whereas Portland cement/ fly ash concrete can gain 50
to 100% additional strength.
Strength gain of Plain cement concrete and Fly ash concrete
 SCM Reduces Emission of Green House Gases
 To reduce cement consumption, the proportion of 'pure' cement in a cement
based mixture can be reduced by replacing some of it with other pozzolanic
material or supplemental cementitious materials (SCMs).
 The benefits from using pozzolanic materials (industrial wastes including fly
ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), silica fume and rice husk
ash) include reductions in energy consumption, greenhouse gas releases.
 From the table, it is apparent that replacing 50% of the Portland cement with
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) results in 40% reduction in the
CO2. Moreover, it is evident that replacing 30% of Portland cement with fly ash
causes 17% reduction in the CO2 emissions.

Impact 100% PC 50% GGBS 30% Fly Ash

85.4 kg
142 kg 118 kg
Green house gas (CO2) (100%) (60%) (83%)
925MJ
1,070 MJ 760 MJ
Primary energy use
(100%) (71%)
(86%)
 Physical Properties of Cement
 Fineness
 Soundness
 Consistency
 Setting time
 Flash set and false set
 Strength
 Heat of hydration
 Loss of ignition
 Specific Gravity/ Relative Density
Fineness of Cement:
 The size of particles of cement is its fineness.
 Fineness of cement can be determined by using 90 micron sieve.
 The rate of hydration depends on the fineness of cement particles
and for a rapid developments of strength, higher fineness is
necessary.
 Physical Properties of Cement
 On the other hand , the cost of grinding to a higher fineness is considerable
and also the finer the cement the more rapidly it deteriorates on exposure to
atmosphere if proper protective measures are not taken.

 The water content of a paste of standard (normal) consistency is greater for

finer
cement.

Soundness of Cement:
 Soundness relates to the ability of cement not to shrink upon hardening.
 Presence of excess quantities of free lime and magnesia in the cement
cause unsoundness of cement.
 Soundness of cement is determined by using Le Chatelier test.
 Physical Properties of Cement

Consistency of Cement:
 The amount of water content that brings the cement paste to a standard
condition of wetness is called “normal consistency”.
 The normal consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency (%
of water) which will permit the vicat plunger to penetrate to a point 10 mm
from the top of the vicat mould. The usual range of values being between 22
to 30 percent by weight of dry cement.
 The knowledge of normal consistency is required while performing other
important tests such as setting time, soundness etc. as these tests are
performed on cement paste using a certain percentage of water required for
standard consistency.
 Normal Consistency of cement is determined by using Vicat apparatus.

Strength of Cement:
 The mechanical strength of hardened cement is perhaps most obviously
required
for structural uses.
 There are several forms of strength: 1. Tensile strength, 2. Compressive
strength
 Physical Properties of Cement

Loss of ignition:
 Heating a cement sample at a 900-1000 degree Celsius causes weight loss.
 This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition.
 Improper and prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or transfer
may lead to pre hydration and carbonation, both of which might be indicated
by loss of ignition.
 The loss of ignition should not be more than 5% for all cements.
 Field Tests of Cement

Field testing should be used only for preliminary investigation, and it does
not replace the importance of laboratory tests. These tests are:

 Visual observation: After opening the bags (packed with cement), there
should
be no visible lumps and the color should be greenish gray.

 Feel Test: In this test, the hand is plunged into a bag of cement. It should
fell cool not warm. The cement is then rubbed between the thumb and the
forefinger. If it does not have a lumpy or gritty feeling but gives a smooth
feeling, the cement is good.

 Throw handful of cement on water. It should float initially before finally

setting.

 Shrinkage Test: The test requires making a thick paste of cement with water on
a piece of thick glass. It is then immersed under water for 24 hours. If it does
not crack, the cement is good.
 Laboratory Tests of Cement
 Fineness test
 Test for Soundness
 Normal consistency test
 Test for Setting time : Initial and Final
 Test for Strength : Tensile and Compressive

Fineness Test:
Procedure to determine fineness of cement –
i)Weigh approximately 100g of cement to the nearest
0.01g and place it on the 90μm sieve.

ii)Agitate the sieve by swirling and linear

movements, until no more fine material
passes through it.
iii)Weigh the residue and express its mass as a
percentage R1,of the quantity first placed on the
sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent.
Khan Abid Ahsan, Lecturer, Department of CE,
 Laboratory Tests of Cement

iv) Gently brush all the fine material off the base of the sieve.

v)Repeat the whole procedure using a fresh 100g sample to obtain R2. Then
calculate R as the mean of R1 and R2 as a percentage, expressed to the nearest 0.1
percent. When the results differ by more than 1 percent absolute, carry out a
third sieving and calculate the mean of the three values.

Reporting of Results:

 Report the value of R, to the nearest 0.1 percent, as the residue on the
90µm sieve.

 For OPC, the residue must not exceed 10 %

 Laboratory Tests of Cement
Soundness Test:
 Soundness of cement is determined by ‘Le-Chatelier method.
 Cover the mould with another piece of glass sheet, place a small weight
on this covering glass sheet and immediately submerge the whole
assembly in water at a temperature of 27 ± 2oC and keep it there for
24hrs.
 Measure the distance separating the indicator points to
the nearest 0.5mm (say d1).

 Submerge the mould again in water at the temperature

prescribed above. Bring the water to boiling point in
25 to 30 minutes and keep it boiling for 3hrs.

 Remove the mould from the water, allow it to cool and

measure the distance between the indicator points (say
d2).
 (d2 – d1) represents the soundness of cement.

 In sound cement this does not exceed 10 mm.

 Laboratory Tests of Cement
Normal Consistency Test:
 The amount of water content that brings the cement paste to a standard
condition of wetness is called “normal consistency”
 The normal consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency (%
of water) which will permit the vicat plunger to penetrate to a point 10 mm
from the top of the vicat mould.
 The usual range of values being between 22 to 30 percent by weight of dry
cement. Normal consistency is also called standard consistency.
Procedure to determine the Normal consistency of
cement:
 Weigh approximately 650 g of cement and mix it with
a weighed quantity of water (the water required for
normal consistency for ordinary cement ranges from
22 to 30% by weight)
 Fill the Vicat mould with paste and level it with a
trowel.
 Lower the plunger gently till it touches the cement
surface.
 Release the plunger allowing it to sink into the
paste.
 Laboratory Tests of Cement
 Release the plunger allowing it to sink into the paste.
 Note the reading on the gauge.
 Repeat the above procedure taking fresh samples of cement and different
quantities of water until the reading on the gauge is 10+1mm.
 Laboratory Tests of Cement
Setting Time Test:
Preparation of Cement Paste:
 Mix 650 gm of cement with the percentage of mixing water required for
normal consistency following the procedure described in Experiment 01.

Molding Test Specimen:

 Same procedure as in the preceding test (Experiment 01). Immediately after
molding, place the test specimen in the moist closet or moist room and allow it
to remain there except when determinations of time of setting are being made.

Time of setting determination:

 Allow the time of setting specimen to remain in the moist cabinet for 30 min
after molding without being disturbed. Determine the penetration of the 1-mm
needle at this time and every 15-min thereafter for Ordinary Portland Cement
(Type I & every 10 min for Rapid Hardening Cement, Type III) until a
penetration of 25 mm or less is obtained.
 Laboratory Tests of Cement
 For the penetration test, lower the needle of the rod until it rests on the surface of the
cement paste. Tighten the set screw and set the indicator at the upper end of the scale, or
take an initial reading. Release the rod quickly by releasing the set screw, and allow the
needle to settle for 30 sec; then take the reading to determine the penetration.

 No penetration test shall be made closer than 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) for any previous penetration
and no penetration test shall be made closer than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) from the inside of the
mold. Record the results of all the penetration tests and, by plotting penetration tests and,
by interpolation or by plotting penetration vs. setting time curve, determine the time when
a penetration of 25 mm is obtained. This is initial setting time.

 The final setting time is when the needle does not sink visibly into the paste or the first
penetration measure that does not mark the specimen surface with a complete circular
impression. Verify final set by performing two additional penetration measurements on
different areas of the specimen surface.Replace the needle of the Vicat apparatus by the
needle with an annular attachment. The cement shall be considered as finally set when,
upon applying the needle gently to the surface of the test block, the needle makes an
impression there on, while the attachment fails to do so.
 Laboratory Tests of Cement

Test of Strength:
 Test for strengths are not made on a neat cement paste because of difficulties in
molding and testing with a consequent large variations in results. The strength
of cement is usually determined from tests on cement mortar.

 The compressive strength of cement mortar is about ten times of its

tensile strength.

Procedure to determine compressive strength of cement mortar-

 The composition of the cement mortar: Cement : Sand = 1: 2.75
 W/C Ratio 0.485
 Size of Cube Mold 2 inch
 Laboratory Tests of Cement
 Place a layer of mortar about 1 inch in all of the cube compartments. Tamp the
mortar in each cube compartment 32 times in about 10 seconds in 4 rounds,
each round to be at right angles to the other and consisting of eight adjoining
strokes over the surface of the specimen.
 When the tamping of the first layer in all of the cube compartments is
completed, fill the compartments with the remaining mortar and then tamp
as specified for the first layer.
 Then the top surface of the mould is struck plane by drawing the straight
edge of
the trowel.
 Immediately upon completion of molding, place the test specimens in the
moist closet from 20 to 24 hours.
 Test the specimens immediately after their removal from the moist closet.
Apply
the load to specimen faces in the testing machine.
 Record the total maximum load indicated by the testing machine at the failure
of the specimen after 3 days, 7days and 28 days.
Thank You 