HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND

THE HORN (Hist. 1012)

1
 UNIT ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1. THE NATURE AND USES OF HISTORY
1.2. SOURCES AND METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY
1.3. HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
1.4. THE GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT

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 1.3. HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

Chronicles
- indigenous tradition of history writing
- Chronicles first appeared in the 14th c.
- The earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious Victories of
Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu respectively
- They focus on monarch's genealogy, upbringing, military exploits, piety and
statesmanship,
- their preoccupations and relations with subordinate officials
- though inadequately, help to understand the evolution of the Ethiopian statem and
society.
- Chronicles are known for their factual detail and strong chronological framework,
- Their demerit:- chronicles explain historical events mainly in religious terms
- Arabic written sources ; - by Arabic-speaking visitors such as al-Masudi , lbn Battuta
and al Umari etc of the 10th -14th c
- For the 16th &17th centuries we have two documents composed by Yemeni writers
1) Shihab ad-Din composed Futuh al Habesha - recorded the conflict between the
Christian kingdom and the Muslim principalities ( the wars of Imam Ahmed) in the
sixteenth century.
2) The other first-hand account was left to us by Al-Haymi, who led a Yemeni delegation
in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (r. 1632-67).
3
 Contd.

√ Abba Bahrey's Geez script on the Oromo written in 1593 aliebet

its limitations, provides us with first-hand information about the
Oromo population movt. & the Gadaa System.
√ Missionary sources:- Ethiopian historiography significantly
benefited from these source from 16th -19th centuries
√ Eg. A Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez (who accompanied the
Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520. )
wrote The Prester John of the Indies,
√ In addition to the missionary sources, travel documents also
contributed to Ethiopian Historiography
√ James Bruce's Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile.
√ Like other sources, however, both the missionaries and travelers'
materials can only be used with considerable reservations and
with care for they are socially and politically biased.
4
 Foreign Writers
-Foreign writers also developed interest in Ethiopian studies.
- One of these was a German, Hiob LudoIf (1624-1704).
- LudoIf was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the 17th
century.
- He wrote Historia Aethiopica (A New History of Ethiopia).
- Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote largely based on
information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba
Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that time.
- In the 19th C. August Dillman published two studies on ancient
Ethiopian history.
- Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of
objectivity in his historical research endeavors.

5
 Local writings
§ In the early 20th century some departures from the chronicle had been made.
§ This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who chroniclers for
adulation of monarchs
§ The ealriest of this group were Aleqa Taye G./Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis and
Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi.
§ Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn joined them.
§ Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics from social justice,
administrative reform and economic analysis to history.
§ Asme produced a work on the Oromo people,
§ Afework wrote the first Amharic novel, Tobiya,
§ while Gebre-Hiwot produced Atse Menilekna Etyopia (Emperor Menilek and
Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public Administration)
§ The most prolific writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia was, Blatten Geta
Hiruy Wolde-Selassie.
§ published four major works namely Ethiopiana Metema , Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik
and Yeityopia Tarik .
§ Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and methodological
sophistication in their works.
§ Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early experiment in modem history
writing and publications.
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√ Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and
Ethiopia professional historians who came after him.
√ published about eight historical works.
√ better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors.
√ Another work of importance is Yilma Deressa's Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be'asra
Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen(A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century). The
book addresses the Oromo population movement and the wars between the
Christian kingdom and the Muslim sultanates as its main subjects.
√ Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also contributed his share.
Among others, he wrote Zikre Neger. - account of Ethiopia's prewar land
tenure systems and taxation.
√ Another work dealing specifically with aspects of land tenure is left to us by
Gebre-Wold Engidawork. Another writer of the same category was
Dejazmach Kebede Tesema. Kebede wrote his memoir of the imperial period,
published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.

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 The professionalization of history in the 1960s
§ The professionalization of history and the pursuit of history as a full time profession
and academic discipline with the opening of the Department of History in 1963 in the
Then HSIU.
§ The Department launched its MA and PhD programs in 1979 and 1990
§ The Institute of Ethiopian Studies (JES) is the other institutional home of professional
historiography of Ethiopia, founded in 1963.
§ Since then the Institute housed a number of historians of whom the late Richard
Pankhurst, the first Director and founding member of the Institute
§ Pankhurst's prolific publication record remains unmatched - authored or co-authored
twenty-two books and produced several hundred articles
§ the IES has been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of
historical research.
§ The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial
phenomenon.
§ The decolonization of African historiography from its Euro –centric biases required
new methodological approach (tools of investigation) to the study of the past that
involved a critical use of oral data
§ Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS)
in London and the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in
the 1960s.
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 UNIT TWO: PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

2.1. HUMAN EVOLUTION

2.2. NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
2.3. THE PEOPLING OF THE REGION
2.4. RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSES

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 2.1. HUMAN EVOLUTION
Introduction
Ethiopia and the Horn-
 the cradle of humankind
 the origin of early civilizations ( such as food
production, making tools and religious
practices were initiated.
 is home to diverse peoples, cultures
(languages, religion, customs... ) and economic
activities.

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 Human Evolution
 How do you think human beings came into
existence?
 Evolution = a gradual natural process
 The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1
billion years B. P.
 Evidence suggest that East African Rift Valley is the
cradle of humanity.
 both biological and cultural evolution have been
discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River
valleys; the Afar Plain; The Olduvai George , Tanzania
and Kenya
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 Contd.
Among others; ( Regarding Biological Evolution)
 fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was unearthed in Anchar (in West
Hararghe) in 2007.
 Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was discovered in Middle
Awash. YHS
 Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.
Tim White
 Other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B.
P.) in Middle Awash.
 A three years old child's fossil named as Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to
3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.
Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh) -was discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A.
D.
 - dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.)
 - with 40% complete body parts,
 - weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters
 - with a pelvis looks like bipedal female

It is therefore with reason that we say the Horn is the Cradle of
Humanity. 12
 The Genus Homo
 The development of the human brain was a
major evolutionary transformation
 the genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-
2.5 million years B.P.
 Evidences of the genus homo from different
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn include;
- Homo habilis- A partial skull named) - derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human
being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands), dated 1.9 million years B. P. from the
Lower Omo.
- Homo erectus (walking upright, dated I. 6 million years B. P.) - discovered at Melka
Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain size.
- Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the
world.

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 Homo sapiens ='wise human‘ or, the ‘Thinking Man’, ‘knowledgeable human
being’

 the closest ancestor to modern man

 with a larger Brain size of 1300-1400 cc
 Skeleton of Archaic Homosapien dated 400, 000 years B.P.)
named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered
in Middle Awash.
 Fossils of Homo sapiens (100,000 years B.P.) were
discovered at Pore Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around
Lower Omo (in 1967).
 the oldest date in the world for modem Homo sapiens.
Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997.
 lived about 160,000 years B.P.
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 Cultural/ Technological evolution
 The period of Cultural revolution conventionally divided into Stone Age, Bronze
Age and Iron Age.
 It was some 2 million years ago that Homo- Habilis practiced tool making, the
earliest tech. transformation.
 Hence, Homo- Habilis the “handy man,” or tool – making man was the first tool
making species of the genus Homo.
 The earliest tools were largely made of stone and quite possibly of wood and
bone although the latter are hardly preserved.
 The age of stone tool technology which is widely known as the period of “stone
age”
 The period of stone tools is divided into Three sub-periods.
- the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.) was the
period when human being sheltered in caves, developed language, and used
stone , bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing.
- Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.)
- Neolithic /New Stone Age/10, 000-6, 000 B.P).

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 The Neolithic Revolution

√The period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way

of life.
√A radical shift from hunting and gathering to food production
√a hunting and gathering society, now became a thing of the past
√The beginning of domestication of plants and animals.
√Led to the development of agriculture - brought about changes of
profound significance on the life of humans for the better.
√As a result people began to live in large and permanent settlements.

√development of agriculture brought about changes of profound

significance on the life of humans for the better.

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 Contd.

§ Domestication in Ethiopia and the Horn started in the more elevated and
wetter-parts,
§ With the cultivation of indigenous plants including Teff (Eragrotis tejj) dagussa
(Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.
§ The domestication of enset plant (Ensete edule) reduced shifting cultivation
(continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion.
§ Material culture:- The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones,
beads, stone figures and animal remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda around
Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea suggestive of
Neolithic material culture.
§ Cave painatings from the Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us
agricultural stone tools.
§ Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and vegetables have
been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana.
Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as domesticated
animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar.
§ Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near
Matahara. 17
2.3.
The Peopling of the Region :-
Languages and Linguistic Processes

§ The region is marked by ethnic and linguistic

diversity.
§There are about 90 languages with 200
dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn.
§Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and
the Horn into two major language super
families - Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.

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 A) Afro-Asiatic:
- with the largest speakers in Ethiopia B) Nilo-Saharan:
- the super family is divided into the following families (Cushitic ,
Semitic and Omotic) and branches
Anywa, Berta,
Cushitic Family:- Gumuz, Kacipo-
1. Northern C: Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
2. Central C : Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen. Balesi, Komo,
3. Eastern C : this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale,
Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba,
Kunama,
Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro,
Tsemai, etc.
Kwama, Kwegu,
4. Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania. Majang, Mi'en,
Semitic: divided into 2 Murie, Mursi,
-1) North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border);
Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea
Nara, Nu'er,
and Tigray). Nyangatom,
2) South: is further divided into two
Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay. Outer: Gafat Opo, Shabo,
(extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).
Omotic Family Suri and Uduk.
: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro,
Dime, Dizi, Garno, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo,
Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
• Lang. process is dynamic some die some are endangered
• Extinct Languages:- eg. Gafat 19
 Economic Formation
√ in Ethiopia and the Horn, two interdependent modes of life /
livelihood: agriculture and pastoralism
√ They coexisted and quite often intermingled .
√ Topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced
economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
√ Pastoral economy has characterized by the production of camel,
goat, and cattle has been the most common economic practice
among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana
Oromo.
√ While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River,
the Somali depended great deal on Wabi Shebelle and Genale
(Jubba) Rivers.
√ The plateaus have sustained by plough agriculture for thousands of
years
√ Sedentary agriculture had been started at least since 10, 000 years
B. P 20
 2.4 Religion and Religious Processes
Indigenous Religion:-
- these are a variety of religious beliefs and practices native to the region and have
been followed by the local people since ancient times.
- A distinctive mark of indigenous religions is belief in Supreme Being, but
special powers are attributed to natural phenomena
Examples:-
- Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the existence of one Supreme Being
called Waqa. (Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) are intermediaries who
maintain link between the Ayyana and the believers.)
- Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, believed to exist
before everything and created the world (qoccancho)
- The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials
known as Magnancho.
-The Gedeo Supreme Being is Mageno and had thanks giving ceremony called
Deraro.
- The Konso religion is centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh. The Gojjam Agaw
used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God). Among sections of the
Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being.
- The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana The Keficho called Supreme
Being as Yero; 21
 Religions with scriptures
Judaism :-
- has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples before
Christianity reached the region.
- The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which
are generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from
Rabbinic Judaism).
(from the very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan
to Ethiopia, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200
B.C.)
- Other Bete-Israel claim the return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who
is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.)
- scholars such as Tadese Tamirat and Kay Shelmay argue that the
Bete-Israel are remnants of old testament followers rather than
turning to Orthodox Christianity /NOT Jews who migrated from
abroad.
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 Christianity
√ Christianity became state religion in 334 AD. during the reign of King Ezana (r.
320-360),
√ earlier it was polytheism – belief in many pre-Christian gods like Ares,
Maharram/war god), Arwe (serpent­ god), Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth
god),
√ Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and
Ferumentius (Fremnatos).
√ When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch
Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox
Church (EOC).
√ Consecration of bishops from Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios
became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.
√ Exapansion to the mass of people had to wait the later part the 5th C.during
the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) with the coming of the Nine Saints (Abuna
Aregawwi (A. Za Mika'el), A. penteleown, A. Afse, A. Isaq, A. Alef, A Gubba, A. Lqanos, A. Sehama,
A. Yemata.)
- They translated the Bible into Ethiopic/Geez
- They also established monastic centers- late became centers of learning
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 Missionaries
1) The Jesuits of the mid 16th –the 17th centuries tried to convert to Catholic.
- this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits.
- the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within the EOC to be
discussed later
2) Missionaries of the 19th Century;-
As of 1804, missionaries' through conclusion of treaties between European
diplomats and Ethiopian authorities.
Examples- The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto ( founder of the Lazarist mission
Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja,
Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.
Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London
(CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries under such
leaders as Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf. Systematic approach of
trained Protestants enabled them to win confidence of local people. They
translated spiritual books into vernaculars.
-Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith.
-They also provided medical facilities.
-All these attracted a large number of followers.
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 Islam
§The story of first refuges ( 101 in number) sent by the
Prophet himself ("...a king under whom none are persecuted.
It is a land of righteousness, where God will give relief from
what you are suffering." )
[ his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman
-Prophet's future wives Umma Habiba and Umma Salma to
Aksum led by Jafar Abu Talib. ]

§Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or

Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave asylum for the
first refuges lived here from 615- 628.
§Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a
mountain of gold I would not give up these people who have
taken refugees with me.“

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 Contd.
√ Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through peaceful ways
including trade.
√ Islam was well established in Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of
the 8th C.
√ In the early 10th century, the Muslim community on the islands developed a
sultanate.
√ Later the most important channel / gateway became the port of Zeila on
western coast of the Gulf of Aden
√ From there it radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia into the
present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
√ First through traders and then Muslim clerics who followed in the footsteps of
traders.
√ For example Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval period,
played very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other
southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
√ Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the eigth century A. D. through
Benadir coasts of Mogadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din
Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.
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 Unit Three = Politics Economy and Society in Ethiopia and The Horn to the end
of the 13th Century

 A remarkable change in the period was the evolution of states

with diverse socio-cultural and economic settings.
3.1. Emergence of States (**State refers to an autonomous political unit having
population, defined territory, sovereignty and government with the power to decree and enforce laws. )
-An important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning
of agriculture and sedentary life
-Peoples had to build houses near cultivated plots fencing both
farming fields and residences
-Families preferred to live together forming larger communities for
better security and to help each other in hard works.
- then came specialization of production and artisans, traders
-intermediaries (traders) also began to buy the products and take to
markets for exchange.
-Therefore, states were formed mainly through the expansion of
agriculture and Trade that gave rise to class differentiation. 27
 3.2 . Ancient States :-

A) The Land of Punt:-

- Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early state
formation took place.
- From small beginnings, states gradually developed into powerful
kingdoms and even empires with a well-demarcated social structure.
- Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
- The exact location of Punt is still not confirmed, but arguably the
Horn region.
- The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian hieroglyphic writings,
accompanied by vivid paintings that describes series of naval/
commercial expeditions, which the Egyptian Pharaohs ( such as
Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731, Pharaoh Asosi) sent to Punt.
- The best described was the expedition of Queen Hatshepsut (1490-
1468 B.C.).
- documented at her tomb at Dier El Bahri.
28
 Contd.

- She sent five ships under the leadership of Black Nubian

Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat.

- Also on record is that the expedition was warmly

welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu, his wife Ati, sons,
daughters and followers.
- Commercial b/s- the expedition returned with frank
incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices,
ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich
feathers and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc.
- Hatshepsut presented some parts of the items to her god,
Amun.
29
 B.Da'amat and Other Cultural Centers in N/ Ethiopia and Eritrea

- -Da'amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural

centers.
- The state known as Da'amat had a center a little to the south of
Aksum.
- From Inscription of the king of Da'amat tentatively dated to the
5th C.B.C. -
- Immediate precursor of Axum i.e, some 500 yrs. Before Axum
- Their Kings used politico­religious title known as Mukarib.
- A system where the kings exercised triangular power
( commander of the Army, Chief Judge& Chief priest)
- There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time.
- Worshiped various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal
god), Astarr (Venus god), Na'uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god),
and Sin (moon god).

30
 Contd.
Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest
of the centers of Early civilization
- It probably emerged around I, 000 BC where South Arabian
merchants and their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros
horn and other commodities coming from the interior,
- Hence Sergwe H/S calls it the capital of South Arabians
- It seems that the period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about
750 to 500 B.C.
- Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry as
well as still standing temple (the Temple of Yeha, 7th C.B.C ,
dedicated to the god of Almoqah- built on a hill top in excellent engineering
techniques of dry masonry by joining large dressed blocks of stones. It is a rectangular building
measuring 18.5 by 15 m with a single entrance   ) and inscriptions indicate Yeha's
glory.
- There were also other cultural centers like Hawloti Melazo, Addi-Seglemeni ( where the
oldest inscripiton was discovered ) Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera,
Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc. 31
 C. The Aksumite State
 Origins - Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C. Initially, its power was limited
to a relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs. Gradually,
however, it expanded to include large territories in all directions.
 the florescence of the Axumite civilization span the first seven centuries AD.
- The period from 3rd -7th centuries AD could be said the heyday of Axum, a period about
which we have plentiful data suggestive of greater prosperity and military might of Axum.
- By the fourth century, for instance, there are inscriptions from the reign of Ezana, which
record the titles and successes of the Axumite kings, demonstrating that Axum was by
then the metropolis of an extensive empire.
 Territory- In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast in the East
to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the west and
from the northern most comer of Eritrea and possibly as far south as northern parts of
Shewa.
Expansion - Kaleb (r. 500-35AD) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar
and Saba in S/A (In fact, according to a Sabean inscriptions, expansion to S/Arabia started under
Gadar/Gadrat earlier around the end of the second or the beginning of the third century AD).
 Later a local prince Dhu-Nuwas marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many Christians.
Byzantine ruler Justinian I Kaleb with a number of ships to transport armies Dhu Nuwas.
Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia who continued
to rule until 570 A. D.
32
 Economy of Axum
 Trade- both internal and external trade was the mainstay of Axumite Economy
 Much of the data about Axumite trade comes form two important historical sources – The
Periplus and The Christian Topography of Cosmas

 Internal Trade: trade routes from Adulis and other ports on the Red Sea coast stretched
inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even further west across
Takaze River.

 A c c o r d i n g The Christian Topography of Cosmas , there was a gold trade with the
gold rich region in south western Ethiopia called Sasu (probably in Beni Shangul and the
adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile)
 It was an exchange of cattle, lumps of salt and iron brought by caravan traders including
some agents working for the king to exchange for gold
 conducted without verbal communication because of language barrier, and even without
seeing each other, hence the ‘ Silent trade’

 Gold trade was a state monopoly

 By the time of the Visit of the Periplus the king of Aksum was Zoskales/ Zehqal
- He used to speak the Greek language, the Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world and
described by Zoskales as ‘ miserly’
33
 Contd.
 T h e P e r i p l u s d e s c r i b e s e x t e r n a l t r a d e t h r o u g h t h e p o r t s o f Aden
(Eudaemon) Gulf like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and Indian Ocean
Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca.

 Exports include= natural products / not agricultural? such as ivory, myrrh,

emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold,
rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some live animals (eg.
apes).

 Imports = garments and textiles from Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and
Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic sheets, tools
or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from the regions of Roman Empire and
Syria were imported.

 Coin minting= from the 3rd- 7th centuries, Aksumite kings like, Endybis, Aphilas
Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and issued coins in gold, silver and bronze
for both overseas and local transactions.

34
 External Relations and Image
 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world
according to the Persian envoy Nonnasus (i.e. Roman
Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time.
It was a major naval and trading power from the first to
the seventh centuries.
Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used not only
for trade but also for its wars across the Red Sea.
There are signs of ship building plant discovered in
Adulis.
Aksumite kings had contacts with the outside world
notably with the South Arabian region, Rome, Persia
leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual
culture. 35
 Material Culture - Pottery , Iron Technology, Monuments
The Monolithic Monuments

The stelae of Axum, which are of several types, are

scattered about a field. Apparently they were meant to
mark grave sites, hence their function is funerary. The stelae
in the environs of Axum do not usually bear inscriptions,
unlike similar stelae found at Mattara and near Hauzein,
with traces of inscriptions which is informative that their
function was commemorative.
There are several small-sized stelae in various places other
than Axum but they are most plentiful near the assemblage
of the giant stelae of Axum.
Seven stelae make up the group of giant stelae in Axum.
Some are over twenty meters high. These seven
conspicuously giant over other funerary stelae of the whole
graveyard were apparently royal tombs.
How many mts. high is the tallest Axumite stele??  
Only one of these seven, which is 21mts (20.6 mts to be
precise) high and has ten storeys as well as a false door at
the base, is still standing --The rest five lie broken on the
ground.
The seventh, which has eleven storeys and 24.6 mts high,
was taken to Rome in 1937 by Italian fascists and erected
near the Caracalla Theatre. - The tallest of these obelisks,
which lies broken is 33 mts high and had 13 storeys. 
•  

36
 Decline and Fall of Axum
§ Contributing Factors
I. The ebbing of resources and climatic changes-
II. Symptoms of decline in the Army-
( Ezana conquered up to Meroe in the 4th C; Kaleb in the early 6th century AD (523-25
AD) sent a huge expedition to South Arabia
- But late in the last decades of the 6th century, Axum failed to quell a rebellion in South
Arabia led by its own appointed viceroy, Abrha. So also internal rebellions)
III–The Rise of Moslem of Arabia and the Economic Situation
IV. Successive Internal Popular Rebellions
• The Beja Rebellion=,
• The Wolqaite Rebellion
• The Rebellion of the 10th C. Queen of Damot by the name Bani al – Hamwiyah
(according to Arab sources) , or Gudit/ Esato (according to local traditions)
• Bani al-Hamwiyah and her followers are noted for the destruction and havoc
they unleashed upon the city of Axum.
• The Queen and her pagan followers destroyed churches and killed Christians.
The magnitude of her success is reported to have gone to the extent of killing the
contemporary king of Axum (whose name we are not in a position to ascertain)
and took over power for a brief period, according to Ibn Haukal in his book
written in AD 977/78 .
37
 D) Zagwe Dynasty

The Southward Shift of the center:-

 At the eve of the decline of Aksumite state the center shifted southwards to Kubar.
 Arab sources provide us with a list of “cities” to the south of Axum where the Arabs went
for trading that flourished in the 9th and 10th centuries.
 But, of all these ‘mighty cities’, the seat of government or capital was Kubar/Kabar,
which probably was somewhere in southern Tigray or in Angot.

 Al-Yaqubi gives the name of Kabar as capital of the state in the year 872 AD.
 Al Mas’udi (in 935 AD) provides a more conclusive evidence about Kubar/Kabar.
“The capital of Abyssinia is Kubar.
It is a great city and the seat of
the kingdom of the Najashi.”

 Agaw elites had the opportunity to take part in Aksumite politics ; serving as soldiers
and functionaries for at least four centuries. After integrating so well with Aksumite
ruling class, they successfully tookover power.
 Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot was the first king of the Zagwe Dynasty, after a
mysterious power transition
 His successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto
La'ab, Yetbarek etc.
 Ruled form ca. 1150 to 1270 AD.
38
 Contd.
Capital =
 The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag
and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
 The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from most of the
highland provinces of the ancient Aksurnite kingdom in the north
down to northern Shewa in the south, the Lake Tana region and the
northern part of what is today Gojjam in the west.
 The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksurnite traditions almost
intact.
 cultivated positive relations with Egypt and Alexandria not always
out of choice but also out of necessity i.e., to ensure the
uninterrupted flow of metropolitan bishops from Alexandria.
 Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern
Mediterranean region
 Chrsitanity remained a state religion.

39
 Contd.
 Furthermore, the Zagwe period was a golden age for the
construction of cave, semi--hewn and monolithic churches
1) Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural
cave, eg. Bete mesqel.
2)Semi-hewn and the monolithic churches ( 11 in number) that have
become UNESCO world heritage are unique in constructions with
detailed interior decoration and partial decoration outside.
They are not totally separated from the surrounding rock. Their roofs
or walls are still attached to the rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete
Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri'el-
Rufa'el and Bete Abba Libanos.
Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the
largest; and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the
shape of the Cross.
Motive= Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem, thus
construction after the model of Holy Land/ Jerusalem in Israel. 40
 Fall of the Zagwe Dynasty
1) Internal:- succession problem
A) The dynasty often suffered from internal succession problem. The
throne rarely passed from father to son, but either from brother to
brother, or from uncle to nephew.
Eg. On the death of Lalibela there was an armed struggle for succession
between two Zagwe princes-Nakuto - Laab the nephew of king Lalibela
and Yitbrek
B) Another factor was the rise of an Amhara-based dynasty was the
emergence of Zeyla, as a new gateway, and the trade route connecting
much of interior Ethiopia with it.
2) External:-
 The hard core of this resistance to the Zagwe dynasty were the
ecclesiastical hierarchy from Cathederal of Axum, the Debre-Damo
monastery and the monastery of Hayq.
 Members of these old establishments seem to harbour some
grievances and anti-Zagwe feelings ( Who favored Debre - Libanos of
Shimezana) 41
 Contd.

• The uniting ideology was that the Zagwe were accused of

usurpation on the grounds that they did not belong to the
Solomonic line of descent .
• From the very start the Zagwe were labeled as “usurpers.”
• There was a widespread belief that their power had been first
acquired through an illegitimate act of usurpation.
• The thinking was to amplify the “illegitimacy” of Agaw and to
restore the old ruling family.
• Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last
Aksumite king Dilna'od, organized his forces and engaged the last
king of Zagwe Dynasty, Yetbarek at the Battle of Gaynt Kirkos .

§ In 1270Yekuno-Amlak defeated Yetbarek and took state power

proclaiming the "restoration" of "Solomonic" Dynasty.

42