Lecture 3 (Postharvest Handling)

POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY I
Chapter III : Postharvest Handling
Course code & title: PHT 2101 – Postharvest Technology I

Prepared by: Ana Mae W. Aquino, ABE, MSc
POSTHARVEST HANDLING
 the stage of crop production immediately following harvest,

including cooling, cleaning, sorting, and packing
 the most important goals of postharvest handling are keeping

the product cool to avoid moisture loss and slow down
undesirable chemical changes, and avoiding physical damage
such as bruising, to delay spoilage.
 Basic principles of postharvest handling:
 handle with care to avoid damage (cutting, crushing,

bruising);
 cool immediately and maintain in cool conditions;
 cull (remove damaged items).
 Postharvest freshness
 the period before drastic change has occurred
 Maturity index for fruits and vegetables
 Life span of fruits and vegetables
 maturation
 ripening
 senescence
 maturation – indicative of the fruit being ready for harvest
– the edible part of the fruit or vegetable is fully developed in

size, although it may not be ready for immediate consumption.
 ripening – rendering the produce edible, as indicated by taste
 senescence – the last stage characterized by the natural of the

fruit or vegetable, as in loss of texture, flavor, and etc.
 Some typical maturity indexes
 Skin Color
 this factor is commonly applied to fruits,

since skin color changes as fruits ripens or
matures.
 assessment of harvest maturity by skin color
depends on the judgment of the harvester,
but color charts are available for cultivars,
such as apples, tomatoes, peaches, chili
peppers, etc.
 Optical Methods
 light transmission properties can be used to measure the degree of

maturity of fruits
 these methods are based on the chlorophyll content of the fruit,
which is reduced during maturation
 the fruit is exposed to a bright light, which is then switched off so
that the fruit is in total darkness, then, a sensor measures the
amount of light emitted from the fruit which is proportional to its
chlorophyll content and thus its maturity
 Optical Methods
 Shape
 the shape of fruit changes during harvest maturity
 for instance, a banana becomes rounded in cross-sections and

less angular as it develops on the plant
 mangoes on the other hand, the relationship between the
shoulders of the fruit and the point at which the stalk is attached
may change. The shoulders of immature mangoes slope away from
the fruit stalk; however, on more mature mangoes the shoulders
become level with the point of attachment, and with even more
maturity, the shoulders may be raised above this point
 Size
 changes in the size of a crop while growing are frequently used to

determine the time of harvest.
 for instance, partially mature cobs of Zea mays saccharata are
marketed as sweet corn, while even less mature and thus smaller
cobs are marketed as baby corn
 for bananas, the width of individual fingers are used to determine

harvest maturity
 Size
 a finger is placed midway along the bunch and its maximum width
is measured with calipers; this referred to as the caliper grade.
 Aroma
 fruits synthesize volatile chemicals as they ripen
 only detectable by human when a fruit is completely ripe, and

therefore has a limited use in commercial situations
 Fruit Opening
 some fruit splits when it is fully mature
 this creates problem in marketing, because the fruit is so mature, it

will have a very short postharvest life
 Leaf Changes
 in rootcrops, the condition of the leaves can likewise indicate the

condition of the crop below ground
 example, if potatoes are to be stored, then the optimum harvest

time is soon after the leaves and stems have died
 if harvested earlier, the skins will be less resistant to harvesting

and handling damage and more prone to storage diseases
 Abscission
 as part of the natural

development of a fruit, an
abscission layer is formed in the
pedicel
 example, in cantaloupe melons,

harvesting before abscission layer
is fully developed results in inferior
flavored fruit, compared to those
left on the vine for the full period
 Firmness
 fruit may change in texture during maturation, especially during

ripening when it may become rapidly softer
 textural changes are detected by touch, and the harvester may

simply be able to gently squeeze the fruit and judge whether the
crop can be harvested
 Firmness
 measure texture in fruits and

vegetables; texture analyzers
and pressure testers
 Juice content
 juice content of many fruits increases

as the fruit matures on the tree
 to measure the juice content of a fruit,
a representative sample of fruit is taken
and then the juice extracted in a
standard manner
 the juice volume is related to the
original mass of juice, which is
proportional to its maturity
 Juice content
Table 1. Minimum juice values for mature citrus
Source: Simson & Strauss (2010)

 Moisture Content
 during the development of some fruit cultivars, the oil content

increases and moisture content rapidly decreases
 moisture levels are required to obtain good acceptability (ex.

avocados cultivated in Chile)
 Moisture Content
Table 3. Moisture content of avocado fruit cultivated in Chile
Source: Simson & Strauss (2010)

 Starch Content
 measurement of starch content is a reliable technique used to

determine maturity in pear cultivars
 starch converts into sugar as harvest time approaches
 the method involves cutting the fruit in two and dipping the cut
pieces into a solution containing 4% potassium iodide and 1%
iodine.
 Starch Content
 the cut surfaces stain to a blue-black color in places where starch

is present and harvest begins when the samples show that 65-70%
of the cut surfaces have turned blue-black
 Acidity
 in case of citrus and fruits, acidity reduces progressively as the fruit

matures on the tree
 taking samples of such fruits, and extracting the juice and titrating it
against a standard alkaline solution, give a measure that can be
related to optimum time of harvest
 Acidity
 normally, acidity is not taken as a

measurement of fruit maturity by
itself but in relation to soluble solids,
giving what is termed the brix: acid
ratio
 Specific Gravity
 the relative gravity, or weight of solids or liquids, compared to pure

distilled water at 62°F (16.7°C), which is considered unity
 as the fruit matures, its specific gravity increases
 suitably used in practice to grade crops according to different

maturities at postharvest
 done by placing the fruit in a tank of water, wherein those that float
are less mature than those that sink
 Harvesting Tools
 several devices are employed to harvest produce depending on

the type of crop.
pliers knife on pole

 Harvesting Tools
shear rice harvester

 Harvesting tools
 in cases where fruit and vegetables are

difficult to catch, such as mangoes or
avocados, a cushioning material is placed
around the tree to prevent damage to the
fruit when dropping from high trees.
 plastic buckets are suitable for

harvesting fruits that are easily
crushed, such as tomatoes.
 Harvesting containers
 harvesting containers must be easy to handle for workers picking

fruits and vegetables in the field.
 harvesting bags with shoulder or waist slings can be used to for
fruits with firm skins, like citrus and avocados
 sacks are commonly used for crops such as onions, potatoes,

cassava, and pumpkins.
 other field containers include baskets, buckets, carts, and plastic

crates
 Harvesting containers
 Packing in the Field and Transport to the Packinghouse
polyethylene bags are

used to pack banana
bunches in the field, which
are then transported to the
packinghouse by means of
mechanical cableways
running through the
plantation
Plastic field boxes are usually made of polyvinyl chloride,

polypropylene, or polyethylene.
 wooden field boxes are made

of thin pieces of wood bound
together with wire.
 advantageous because they

can be packed flat and are
inexpensive
 bulk bins are made of wood, plastic, and steel materials

 Operations prior to Packing
 Cleaning
Typical produce washing machine

 Operations prior to Packing

 Disinfections
- after washing fruits and

vegetables, disinfectant agents are
added to the soaking tank to avoid
propagation of diseases among
consecutive batches of produce.
 Artificial waxing
- artificial wax is applied to produce

to replace the natural wax lost
during washing of fruits or
vegetables. This adds a bright
sheen to the product.
 Functions of Artificial waxing
 Provides a protective coating over entire surface.

Seals small cracks and dents in the rind or skin.
Seals off stem scars or base of petiole
Reduces moisture loss
Permits natural respiration
Extends shelf life
Enhances sales appeal
 Packaging
Modern packaging must comply with the following requirements

(Wills et al., n.d.):
a) The package must have sufficient mechanical strength to protect

the continents during handling, transport, and stacking.
b) The packaging material must be free chemical substances that

could transfer to the produce and become toxic to man.
c) The package must meet handling and marketing requirements in

terms of weight, size, and shape.
 Packaging
d) The package should allow rapid cooling of the contents.

Furthermore, the permeability of plastic films to respiratory gases
could also be important
e) Mechanical strength of the package should be largely unaffected

by moisture content (when wet) or high humidity conditions.
f) The security of the package or ease of opening and closing might

be important in some marketing situations
 Packaging
g) The package must either exclude light or be transparent
h) The package should be appropriate for retail presentations.
i) The package should be designed for ease of disposal, reuse, or

recycling
 Classification of Packaging
a) Flexible sacks; made of plastic jute such as bags (small

sacks) and nets (open mesh)
b) Wooden crates
c) Cartons (fiberboard boxes)
d) Pallet boxes and shipping containers
e) Baskets made of wooden strips of leaves, bamboo, and
plastic
 Cooling Methods and Temperatures
Several methods of cooling are

applied to produce harvesting to
extend shelf-life and maintain a
fresh-like quality. Some of the low
temperature treatments are
unsuitable for simple rural or
village treatment but are included
for consideration.
 Precooling
• done with cold air, cold water

(hydrocooling), direct contact with
ice, or by evaporation of water from
the product under a partial vacuum
(vacuum cooling).

 Air precooling
• precooling of fruits with cold air is the

most common practice.
• done in refrigerator cars, storage

rooms, tunnels, or forced air-coolers
(air is forced to pass through the
container via baffles and pressure
differences).

 Air precooling
 Icing
• Ice is commonly added to boxes of produce by
placing a layer of crushed ice directly on top of
the crop.
• Ice slurry proportion:
60% finely crushed ice
40% water
0.1% NaCl (to lower the melting point)
• Water to ice ratio: 1:1 to 1:4

 Room cooling
• The type of room used may vary, but

generally consists of a refrigeration unit in
which cold air is passed through a fan.
• The circulation may be such that air is

blown across the top of the room and falls
through the crop by convection.

 Room cooling

 Forced air-cooling
• The principle of this precooling is to place the crop into a room where
cold air is directed through the crop after flowing over various
refrigerated metal coils or pipes.
• Forced air-cooling systems blow air at a high velocity leading to

desiccation of the crop. To minimize the effect, various methods of
humidifying the cooling air have been designed such as blowing the air
through cold water sprays.

 Forced air-cooling

 Hydrocooling
• The transmission of heat from a solid to a liquid is faster than the

transmission of heat from a solid to a gas.
• The crop is submerged in cold water, which is constantly circulated

through a heat exchanger. When crops are transported around the
packhouse in water, the transport can incorporate a hydrocooler.
• Hydrocooling helps clean the produce

 Hydrocooling
• Chlorinated water can be used to avoid

spoilage of the crop
• It is commonly used for vegetables, such as

asparagus, celery, sweet corn, radishes,
and carrots, but it is seldom used for fruits
 Hydrocooling
• Chlorinated water can be used to avoid

spoilage of the crop
• It is commonly used for vegetables, such as

asparagus, celery, sweet corn, radishes,
and carrots, but it is seldom used for fruits

 Vacuum cooling
• Cooling in this case is achieved with the latent heat of vaporization

rather than conduction
• At normal air pressure (760 mmHg) water will boil at 100°C. As air
pressure is reduced so is the boiling point of water, and at 4.6 mmHg
water boils at 0°C.

 Vacuum cooling
• For every 5 or 6 °C reduction in temperature, under these conditions,
the crop loses about 1% of its weight.
• The weight loss may be minimized by spraying the produce with water
either before enclosing it in the vacuum chamber or towards the end
of the vacuum cooling operation (hydrovacuum cooling).
• Suitable for leaf crops such as lettuce but not for crops like tomatoes
having a relatively thick wax cuticle.

 Vacuum cooling

 Vacuum cooling
 Recommended minimum temperature to increase storage time
There is no ideal storage for all fruits

and vegetables, because their response
to reduced temperatures varies widely.
For extremely perishable fruits (e.g. apricots, berries, cherries,

figs, watermelons) can be stored at -1 to 4°C for 1-5 weeks
Less perishable fruits (e.g. mandarin, nectarine, ripe or green

pineapple) can be stored at 5 to 9°C for 2-5 weeks; bananas
10°C for 1-2 weeks; and green bananas at 13°C for 1-2 weeks
For highly perishable vegetables (asparagus, beans, broccoli,

and brussels sprout) at it can be stored at -1 to 4°C for 2-4
weeks; cauliflower at 5 to 9°C for 2-4 weeks
 Non perishable vegetables (carrots, onions, potatoes and

parsnips) can be stored at 5 to 9°C for 12-28 weeks; sweet
potatoes at 10°C for 16-24 weeks

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POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY I

Chapter III : Postharvest Handling

Course code & title: PHT 2101 – Postharvest Technology I

 the stage of crop production immediately following harvest,

 the most important goals of postharvest handling are keeping

 handle with care to avoid damage (cutting, crushing,

 cull (remove damaged items).

 Life span of fruits and vegetables

– the edible part of the fruit or vegetable is fully developed in

 ripening – rendering the produce edible, as indicated by taste

 senescence – the last stage characterized by the natural of the

 this factor is commonly applied to fruits,

 light transmission properties can be used to measure the degree of

 the shape of fruit changes during harvest maturity

 for instance, a banana becomes rounded in cross-sections and

 changes in the size of a crop while growing are frequently used to

 for bananas, the width of individual fingers are used to determine

 fruits synthesize volatile chemicals as they ripen

 only detectable by human when a fruit is completely ripe, and

 some fruit splits when it is fully mature

 this creates problem in marketing, because the fruit is so mature, it

 in rootcrops, the condition of the leaves can likewise indicate the

 example, if potatoes are to be stored, then the optimum harvest

 if harvested earlier, the skins will be less resistant to harvesting

 as part of the natural

 example, in cantaloupe melons,

 fruit may change in texture during maturation, especially during

 textural changes are detected by touch, and the harvester may

 measure texture in fruits and

 juice content of many fruits increases

Table 1. Minimum juice values for mature citrus

Source: Simson & Strauss (2010)

 during the development of some fruit cultivars, the oil content

 moisture levels are required to obtain good acceptability (ex.

Table 3. Moisture content of avocado fruit cultivated in Chile

Source: Simson & Strauss (2010)

 measurement of starch content is a reliable technique used to

 starch converts into sugar as harvest time approaches

 the cut surfaces stain to a blue-black color in places where starch

 in case of citrus and fruits, acidity reduces progressively as the fruit

 normally, acidity is not taken as a

 the relative gravity, or weight of solids or liquids, compared to pure

 as the fruit matures, its specific gravity increases

 suitably used in practice to grade crops according to different

 several devices are employed to harvest produce depending on

pliers knife on pole

shear rice harvester

 in cases where fruit and vegetables are

 plastic buckets are suitable for

 harvesting containers must be easy to handle for workers picking

 sacks are commonly used for crops such as onions, potatoes,

 other field containers include baskets, buckets, carts, and plastic

polyethylene bags are

Plastic field boxes are usually made of polyvinyl chloride,

 wooden field boxes are made

 advantageous because they

 bulk bins are made of wood, plastic, and steel materials

 Operations prior to Packing

Typical produce washing machine