CH 18 Lecture Presentation

Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology
Eleventh Edition
Chapter 18
The Endocrine System
Lecture Presentation by
Deborah A. Hutchinson
Seattle University
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Learning Outcomes
18-1 Explain the importance of intercellular communication,
describe the mechanisms involved, and compare the modes of
intercellular communication that occur in the endocrine and
nervous systems.
18-2 Compare the cellular components of the endocrine system
with those of other systems, contrast the major structural classes
of hormones, and explain the general mechanisms of hormonal
action on target organs.
18-3 Describe the location, hormones, and functions of the
pituitary gland, and discuss the effects of abnormal pituitary
hormone production.
thyroid gland, and discuss the effects of abnormal thyroid
hormone production.
2
Learning Outcomes
parathyroid glands, and discuss the effects of abnormal
parathyroid hormone production.
18-6 Describe the location, structure, hormones, and general
functions of the adrenal glands, and discuss the effects of
abnormal adrenal hormone production.
18-7 Describe the location of the pineal gland, and discuss the
functions of the hormone it produces.
18-8 Describe the location, structure, hormones, and functions
of the pancreas, and discuss the effects of abnormal pancreatic
hormone production.
3
Learning Outcomes
18-9 Describe the functions of the hormones produced by the
kidneys, heart, thymus, testes, ovaries, and adipose tissue.
18-10 Explain how hormones interact to produce coordinated
physiological responses and influence behavior, describe the role
of hormones in the general adaptation syndrome, and discuss
how aging affects hormone production and give examples of
interactions between the endocrine system and other organ
systems.
4
An Introduction to the Endocrine System
 Endocrine system
– Endocrine cells and tissues produce about 30 different
hormones (chemical messengers)
– Controls and coordinates body processes
5
18-1 Intercellular Communication
 Mechanisms of intercellular communication
– Direct communication
• Exchange of ions and molecules between adjacent
cells across gap junctions
• Occurs between two cells of the same type
• Highly specialized and relatively rare
– Paracrine communication
• Chemical signals transfer information from cell to
cell within a single tissue
6
 Mechanisms of intercellular communication
– Autocrine communication
• Messages affect the same cells that secrete them
• Chemicals involved are autocrines
• Example: prostaglandins secreted by smooth
muscle cells cause the same cells to contract
– Endocrine communication
• Endocrine cells release chemicals (hormones) that
are transported in bloodstream
• Alters metabolic activities of many organs
7
 Target cells
– Have receptors needed to bind and “read” hormonal
messages
 Hormones
– Change types, quantities, or activities of enzymes and
structural proteins in target cells
– Can alter metabolic activities of multiple tissues and
organs at the same time
– Affect long-term processes like growth and
development
8
 Synaptic communication
– Neurons release neurotransmitters at a synapse
– Leads to action potentials that are propagated along
axons
– Allows for high-speed “messages” to reach specific
destinations
– Ideal for crisis management
9
18-2 Hormones
 Both endocrine and nervous systems
– Rely on release of chemicals that bind to specific
receptors on target cells
– Share many chemical messengers (e.g.,
norepinephrine and epinephrine)
– Are regulated mainly by negative feedback
– Function to preserve homeostasis by coordinating and
regulating activities
10
18-2 Hormones
 Endocrine system
– Includes all endocrine cells and tissues that produce
hormones or paracrines
– Endocrine cells release secretions into extracellular
fluid
• Unlike exocrine cells
– Endocrine organs are scattered throughout body
11
Figure 18–1 Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System (Part 1 of 2).
Hypothalamus Pineal Gland

Production of ADH, OXT, Melatonin
and regulatory hormones
Parathyroid Glands
Pituitary Gland (located on the posterior surfaces
of the thyroid gland)
Anterior lobe
ACTH, TSH, GH, PRL, Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
FSH, LH, and MSH
Posterior lobe
Release of oxytocin (OXT)
and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
12
Figure 18–1 Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System (Part 2 of 2).
Organs with Secondary

Endocrine Functions
Heart See
• Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) Chapter
Thyroid Gland • Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) 21
Thyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3) Thymus (undergoes atrophy See
Calcitonin (CT) during adulthood) Chapter
• Thymosins 22
Adrenal Glands
Adipose Tissue
Medulla
• Leptin
Epinephrine (E)
Norepinephrine (NE)
Digestive Tract See
Cortex Secretes numerous hormones Chapter
Cortisol, corticosterone, involved in the coordination of 25
cortisone, aldosterone, system functions, glucose
androgens metabolism, and appetite
Pancreas Kidneys See

(Pancreatic Islets) • Erythropoietin (EPO) Chapters
• Calcitriol 19 and 26
Insulin, glucagon
Gonads See
KEY TO PITUITARY HORMONES Testes (male) Chapters
• Androgens (especially testosterone) 28 and 29
ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone Testis • Inhibin
TSH Thyroid-stimulating hormone
GH Growth hormone Ovaries (female)
PRL Prolactin • Estrogens
FSH Follicle-stimulating hormone Ovary
• Progesterone
LH Luteinizing hormone • Inhibin
MSH Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
13
18-2 Hormones
 Classes of hormones
– Amino acid derivatives
– Peptide hormones
– Lipid derivatives
14
18-2 Hormones
 Amino acid derivatives (biogenic amines)
– Small molecules structurally related to amino acids
– Derivatives of tyrosine
• Thyroid hormones
• Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and
dopamine)
– Derivatives of tryptophan
• Serotonin and melatonin
15
18-2 Hormones
 Peptide hormones
– Chains of amino acids
– Most are synthesized as prohormones
• Inactive molecules converted to active hormones
before or after they are secreted
– Glycoproteins
• Proteins more than 200 amino acids long that have
carbohydrate side chains (e.g., TSH, LH, FSH)
– Short polypeptides/small proteins
16
18-2 Hormones
 Peptide hormones
– Short-chain polypeptides
• ADH and OXT are each 9 amino acids long
– Small proteins
• Insulin (51 amino acids)
• Growth hormone (191 amino acids)
• Prolactin (198 amino acids)
– Includes all hormones secreted by hypothalamus,
heart, thymus, digestive tract, pancreas, posterior lobe
of the pituitary gland, etc.
17
18-2 Hormones
 Lipid derivatives
– Eicosanoids—derived from arachidonic acid, a 20-
carbon fatty acid
• Paracrines that coordinate cellular activities and
affect enzymatic processes (such as blood clotting)
• Some eicosanoids (such as leukotrienes) have
secondary roles as hormones
• Prostaglandins coordinate local cellular activities
– Converted to thromboxanes and prostacyclins in
some tissues
18
18-2 Hormones
 Lipid derivatives
– Steroid hormones—derived from cholesterol
• Include
– Androgens from testes in males
– Estrogens and progesterone from ovaries in
females
– Corticosteroids from adrenal cortex
– Calcitriol from kidneys
• Bound to specific transport proteins in the plasma
– Remain in circulation longer than peptide
hormones
19
18-2 Hormones
 Transport and inactivation of hormones
– Hormones may circulate freely or travel bound to
special carrier proteins
– Free hormones remain functional for less than an hour
and are inactivated when they
• Diffuse out of bloodstream and bind to receptors on
target cells,
• Are absorbed and broken down by liver or kidneys,
or
• Are broken down by enzymes in blood or interstitial
fluids
20
18-2 Hormones
 Transport and inactivation of hormones
– Thyroid and steroid hormones
• Remain functional much longer
• More than 99 percent become attached to special
transport proteins in blood
• Equilibrium state exists between free and bound
forms
• Bloodstream contains a substantial reserve of
bound hormones
21
18-2 Hormones
 Mechanisms of hormone action
– Binding of a hormone may
• Alter genetic activity
• Alter rate of protein synthesis
• Change membrane permeability
22
18-2 Hormones
 Hormone receptor
– A protein molecule to which a particular molecule binds
strongly
– Different tissues have different combinations of
receptors
– Presence or absence of a specific receptor determines
hormonal sensitivity of a cell
23
18-2 Hormones
 Down-regulation
– Presence of a hormone triggers a decrease in the
number of hormone receptors
– When levels of a particular hormone are high, cells
become less sensitive to it
 Up-regulation
– Absence of a hormone triggers an increase in the
number of hormone receptors
– When levels of a particular hormone are low, cells
become more sensitive to it
24
18-2 Hormones
 Catecholamines and peptide hormones
– Not lipid soluble
– Unable to penetrate plasma membrane
– Bind to receptor proteins on outer surface of plasma
membrane (extracellular receptors)
 Steroid and thyroid hormones
– Lipid soluble
– Diffuse across plasma membrane and bind to receptors
inside cell (intracellular receptors)
25
18-2 Hormones
 Hormones and extracellular receptors
– First messenger
• Hormone that binds to extracellular receptor
• Promotes release of second messenger in cell
– Second messenger
• Intermediary molecule that appears due to
hormone–receptor interaction
• May act as enzyme activator, inhibitor, or cofactor
• Results in change in rates of metabolic reactions
• Example: cAMP, cGMP, Ca2+
26
18-2 Hormones
 Process of amplification
– When a small number of hormone molecules binds to
extracellular receptors,
• Thousands of second messengers may appear
– Magnifies effect of hormone on target cell
27
18-2 Hormones
 G protein
– Enzyme complex coupled to membrane receptor
– Protein binds GTP
– Involved in link between first messenger and second
messenger
28
18-2 Hormones
 G proteins and cAMP
– Steps involved in increasing cAMP level, which
accelerates metabolic activity of cell
1. Activated G protein activates adenylate cyclase
2. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP
3. Cyclic AMP functions as a second messenger
4. Generally, cyclic AMP activates kinases that
phosphorylate proteins
– Increase in cAMP level is usually short-lived
• Phosphodiesterase (PDE) converts cAMP to AMP
29
Figure 18–3a G Proteins and Second Messengers.
The first messenger A G protein is an

(a peptide hormone, enzyme complex
catecholamine, or coupled to a
eicosanoid) binds to a membrane receptor
membrane receptor and that serves as a link
activates a G protein. between the first and
second messenger.
Hormone
Hormone
Protein Protein
receptor receptor
G protein G protein
(inactive) activated
a Effects on cAMP Level

Many G proteins, once activated, exert their effects by changing the
concentration of cyclic AMP, which acts as the second messenger within the
cell.
Hormone Hormone
Protein Protein
receptor receptor
G protein Increased G protein Enhanced
activated production activated breakdown
of cAMP of cAMP
Acts as adenylate PDE
cyclase
second cAMP ATP cAMP AMP
messenger
kinase
Reduced
Opens ion Activates enzyme
channels enzymes activity
If levels of cAMP increase, In some instances, G protein

enzymes may be activated activation results in
or ion channels may be decreased levels of cAMP in
opened, accelerating the the cytoplasm. This decrease
metabolic activity of the cell. has an inhibitory effect on
the cell.
First Messenger Examples First Messenger Examples

• Epinephrine and • Epinephrine and
norepinephrine norepinephrine
• Calcitonin
• Parathyroid hormone
• ADH, ACTH, FSH, LH, TSH
30
18-2 Hormones
 G proteins and calcium ions
1. G protein activates phospholipase C (PLC)
2. Triggers receptor cascade beginning with production
of diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate
(IP3) from phospholipids
3. IP3 diffuses into cytoplasm and triggers release of
Ca2+ from intracellular reserves
4. Calcium ion channels open due to activation of
protein kinase C (PKC), and Ca2+ enters cell
5. Ca2+ binds to calmodulin, activating enzymes
31
Figure 18–3b G Proteins and Second Messengers.
The first messenger A G protein is an

(a peptide hormone, enzyme complex
catecholamine, or coupled to a
eicosanoid) binds to a membrane receptor
membrane receptor and that serves as a link
activates a G protein. between the first and
second messenger.
Hormone
Hormone
Protein Protein
receptor receptor
G protein G protein
(inactive) activated
b Effects on Ca2+ Level
Hormone
Protein
receptor
G protein
activated
PKC
Calmodulin
Activates
enzymes
First Messenger Examples

• Epinephrine and norepinephrine
• Oxytocin
• Regulatory hormones of hypothalamus
• Several eicosanoids
32
18-2 Hormones
 Hormones and intracellular receptors
– Steroid hormones can alter rate of DNA transcription in
nucleus
– Alterations in synthesis of enzymes or structural
proteins
• Directly affect activity and structure of target cell
– Thyroid hormones bind to receptors within nucleus and
on mitochondria
• Activate genes or change rate of transcription
• Increase rates of ATP production
33
Figure 18–4a Effects of Intracellular Hormone Binding.
a Steroid hormones diffuse through the plasma membrane

and bind to receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus.
The complex then binds to DNA in the nucleus,
activating specific genes.
1
Diffusion through
membrane lipids
Target cell response
CYTOPLASM
Alteration of cellular
structure or activity
6
Translation and
protein synthesis
Receptor
2
Binding of hormone
to cytoplasmic or
nuclear receptors
5
Transcription and
mRNA production
Receptor 4
Gene activation
Nuclear
pore
3
Nuclear Binding of
envelope hormone–receptor
complex to DNA
34
Figure 18–4b Effects of Intracellular Hormone Binding.
b Thyroid hormones enter the cytoplasm and bind to

receptors in the nucleus to activate specific genes.
They also bind to receptors on mitochondria and
accelerate ATP production.
1
Transport across
plasma membrane
Target cell response
Increased Alteration of cellular

ATP structure or activity
production
Receptor
6
Translation and
protein synthesis
2
Binding of receptors
at mitochondria and
nucleus
5
Transcription and
mRNA production
Receptor
4
Gene activation
3
Binding of
hormone–receptor
complex to DNA
35
18-2 Hormones
 Hormone secretion
– Mainly controlled by negative feedback
• Stimulus triggers production of hormone that
reduces intensity of the stimulus
– Can be triggered by
• Humoral stimuli (change in extracellular fluid),
• Hormonal stimuli (arrival or removal of hormone), or
• Neural stimuli (neurotransmitters)
36
18-2 Hormones
 Control of hormone secretion
– May involve only one hormone
– Humoral stimuli
• Control hormone secretion by heart, pancreas,
parathyroid gland, and digestive tract
– Hormonal stimuli
• May involve one or more intermediary steps
• Two or more hormones involved
– Neural stimuli
• Hypothalamus provides highest level of control
37
18-3 The Pituitary Gland
 Pituitary gland (hypophysis)
– Lies within sella turcica
• Sellar diaphragm isolates pituitary gland from cranial
cavity
– Hangs inferior to hypothalamus
• Connected by infundibulum
– Releases nine important peptide hormones
• Bind to extracellular receptors
• Use cAMP as second messenger
38
Figure 18–5a The Orientation and Anatomy of the Pituitary Gland.
Third Mammillary
ventricle body
Hypothalamus
n ce
in e
em
Optic chiasm
dian
Infundibulum Me
Sellar diaphragm
Anterior Pituitary Lobe
Pars tuberalis
Pars distalis Posterior
pituitary
Pars intermedia lobe
Sphenoid
(sella turcica)
a Relationship of the pituitary

gland to the hypothalamus 39
Figure 18–5b The Orientation and Anatomy of the Pituitary Gland.
Anterior Pituitary Lobe Posterior

pituitary
Pars Pars lobe
distalis intermedia
Secretes other Secretes Releases

pituitary MSH ADH and
hormones OXT
Pituitary gland LM × 77
b Histology of the pituitary gland showing the

anterior and posterior lobes 40
 The hypothalamus
– Regulates functions of the pituitary gland
– Synthesizes ADH and OXT and transports them to
posterior pituitary gland for release
– Secretes regulatory hormones that control secretory
activity of anterior pituitary gland
– Contains autonomic centers that exert direct control
over adrenal medulla
41
Figure 18–6 Three Mechanisms of Hypothalamic Control over Endocrine Function.
Production of Secretion of regulatory Control of

antidiuretic hormones to control sympathetic
hormone (ADH) activity of the anterior output to adrenal
and oxytocin (OXT) lobe of the pituitary gland medulla
HYPOTHALAMUS Preganglionic
motor fibers
Adrenal Gland
Infundibulum
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla
Anterior lobe Posterior lobe

of pituitary gland of pituitary gland
Hormones secreted by Release of antidiuretic Secretion of epinephrine (E)

the anterior lobe control hormone (ADH) and oxytocin and norepinephrine (NE)
other endocrine organs (OXT) from posterior lobe from adrenal medulla
42
 Anterior lobe of pituitary gland
– Also called adenohypophysis
• Hormones “turn on” endocrine glands or support
functions of other organs
• Has three regions
– Pars distalis
– Pars tuberalis
– Pars intermedia
43
 Median eminence
– Swelling near attachment of infundibulum
– Where hypothalamic neurons release regulatory
hormones into interstitial fluids
• Hormones then enter bloodstream through
fenestrated capillaries (fenestra = window)
44
 Portal vessels
– Blood vessels that link two capillary networks
– Entire complex is a portal system
– Hypophyseal portal system
• Ensures that regulatory hormones reach cells in
anterior pituitary before entering general circulation
45
Figure 18–7 The Hypophyseal Portal System and the Blood Supply to the Pituitary Gland.
Supra-optic nuclei Paraventricular nuclei Neurosecretory neurons
Mammillary
body
The superior hypophyseal artery delivers

Optic
blood to a capillary network in the upper
chiasm
infundibulum.
Capillary network
Infundibulum The portal vessels deliver blood containing

regulatory hormones to the capillary
network in the anterior lobe of the pituitary.
Anterior lobe of
the pituitary gland
Capillary network in
The inferior hypophyseal artery delivers
the anterior lobe
blood to the posterior lobe of the pituitary
Posterior lobe of gland.
the pituitary gland
Endocrine cells Hypophyseal veins carry blood containing

the pituitary hormones to the
cardiovascular system for delivery to the
rest of the body.
46
 Hypothalamic control of anterior lobe
– Two classes of hypothalamic regulatory hormones
• Releasing hormones (RH)
– Stimulate synthesis and secretion of one or more
hormones at anterior lobe
• Inhibiting hormones (IH)
– Prevent synthesis and secretion of hormones
from anterior lobe
– Rate of secretion is controlled by negative feedback
47
Figure 18–8a Feedback Control of Endocrine Secretion.
Typical pattern of regulation when multiple endocrine organs are involved

a The hypothalamus produces a releasing hormone (RH) to stimulate hormone production by other glands. Homeostatic
control occurs by negative feedback.
Stimulation
KEY
Hypothalamus Inhibition
The effects of hypothalamic releasing hormones that follow the typical pattern of
regulation
RH Releasing
TRH CRH GnRH
hormone (RH)
Pituitary
gland
Anterior
lobe Negative
feedback
Hormone 1
Hormone 1 (from pituitary) TSH ACTH FSH LH
Endocrine Endocrine Thyroid Adrenal

Testes Ovaries Testes Ovaries
organ target organ gland cortex
Hormone 2 Hormone 2 Thyroid Inhibin Progesterone

(from endocrine Glucocorticoids Inhibin Androgens
hormones Estrogens Estrogens
target organ)
Target cells
48
 Hormones of anterior lobe
– Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
– Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Released due to corticotropin-releasing hormone
(CRH)
– Prolactin (PRL)
• Release inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting hormone
(PIH)
• Release stimulated by prolactin-releasing
hormone (PRH)
– Growth hormone (GH), or somatotropin
– Gonadotropins
49
 Gonadotropins
– Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
– Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• In females, it induces ovulation and stimulates
secretion of estrogens and progesterone
• In males, it stimulates production of androgens
– Production of FSH and LH is stimulated by
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
– Hypogonadism
• Caused by low production of gonadotropins
50
Figure 18–9 Pituitary Hormones and Their Targets (Part 1 of 2).
Hypothalamus KEY TO PITUITARY HORMONES:

Direct Control Indirect Control through Release ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone
by Nervous of Regulatory Hormones TSH Thyroid-stimulating hormone
System GH Growth hormone
Regulatory hormones are released
into the hypophyseal portal system PRL Prolactin
for delivery to the anterior lobe of the FSH Follicle-stimulating hormone
pituitary gland LH Luteinizing hormone
ADH Antidiuretic hormone
OXT Oxytocin
Anterior lobe of
Adrenal pituitary gland
medulla
Adrenal ACTH
gland
Adrenal
TSH GH
cortex
Epinephrine and Liver MSH

Thyroid
norepinephrine PRL FSH LH
gland
Somatomedins
Glucocorticoids
(cortisol, Melanocytes (uncertain
corticosterone) significance in healthy
adults)
Bone, muscle, Ovaries
Testes of female
other tissues Mammary
of male
glands
Thyroid
hormones (T3, T4)
Inhibin Testosterone Estrogen Progesterone Inhibin 51
Figure 18–8a Feedback Control of Endocrine Secretion.
52
Figure 18–8b Feedback Control of Endocrine Secretion.
Variations on the typical pattern of regulation of endocrine

organs by the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary lobe
b The regulation of
prolactin (PRL)
production by
the anterior lobe. Stimulation
In this case, the PIH
hypothalamus Inhibition
PRH
produces both a
releasing hormone
(PRH) and an
inhibiting hormone
(PIH). When one is Anterior
stimulated, the lobe
other is inhibited.
PRL
Stimulates
mammary
glands
53
 Growth hormone stimulates
– Liver cells to release somatomedins that stimulate
tissue growth
• Somatomedins cause skeletal muscle fibers and
other cells to increase uptake of amino acids
– Stem cells in epithelia and connective tissues to divide
– Breakdown of triglycerides in adipocytes, which leads
to glucose-sparing effect
– Breakdown of glycogen by liver cells causing
diabetogenic effect
54
 Production of growth hormone is regulated by
– Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GH–RH)
– Growth hormone–inhibiting hormone (GH–IH)
55
Figure 18–8c Feedback Control of Endocrine Secretion.
Variations on the typical pattern of regulation of endocrine

organs by the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary lobe
c The regulation of growth

hormone (GH) production
by the anterior lobe.
When GH–RH release is Stimulation
inhibited, GH–IH release GH–IH
is stimulated. GH–RH
Inhibition
Anterior
lobe
Epithelia,
GH adipose tissue,
liver
Liver
Somatomedins
Stimulate growth of skeletal muscle,

cartilage, and many other tissues 56
 Pars intermedia
– Secretes melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
• Stimulates melanin production
– Virtually nonfunctional in adults except in
• Pregnant women
• Those with certain diseases
57
 Posterior lobe of the pituitary gland
– Also called neurohypophysis
– Contains unmyelinated axons of hypothalamic neurons
– Supra-optic and paraventricular nuclei manufacture
(respectively)
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Oxytocin (OXT)
– Stimulates contraction of uterus during labor
– Promotes ejection of milk after delivery
58
Figure 18–9 Pituitary Hormones and Their Targets (Part 2 of 2).
Direct Release ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone

of Hormones TSH Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Sensory Osmoreceptor GH Growth hormone
stimulation stimulation PRL Prolactin
FSH Follicle-stimulating hormone
LH Luteinizing hormone
OXT Oxytocin
Posterior lobe
of pituitary gland
ADH
Kidneys
OXT
Males: Smooth
muscle in ductus
deferens and
prostate gland
Females: Uterine
smooth muscle and
mammary glands 59
Figure 18–9 Pituitary Hormones and Their Targets.

Direct Control Indirect Control through Release Direct Release ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone
by Nervous of Regulatory Hormones of Hormones TSH Thyroid-stimulating hormone
System Regulatory hormones are released Sensory Osmoreceptor GH Growth hormone
into the hypophyseal portal system stimulation stimulation PRL Prolactin
for delivery to the anterior lobe of the FSH Follicle-stimulating hormone
pituitary gland LH Luteinizing hormone
OXT Oxytocin
Posterior lobe
Anterior lobe of
of pituitary gland
Adrenal pituitary gland
medulla ADH
Adrenal ACTH
gland
Adrenal
TSH GH Kidneys
cortex OXT
Males: Smooth
Epinephrine and Liver MSH muscle in ductus
Thyroid
norepinephrine PRL FSH LH deferens and
gland
Somatomedins prostate gland
Females: Uterine
smooth muscle and
mammary glands
Glucocorticoids
(cortisol, Melanocytes (uncertain
corticosterone) significance in healthy
adults)
Bone, muscle, Ovaries
Testes of female
other tissues Mammary
of male
glands
Thyroid
hormones (T3, T4)
Inhibin Testosterone Estrogen Progesterone Inhibin
60
18-4 The Thyroid Gland
 Thyroid gland
– Lies inferior to thyroid cartilage of larynx
– Consists of two lobes connected by narrow isthmus
• Thyroid follicles
– Hollow spheres lined by cuboidal epithelium
– Surrounded by capillaries
– Cells absorb iodide ions (I–) from blood
– Follicle cavity contains viscous colloid
• C (clear) cells, or parafollicular cells
61
Figure 18–10a Anatomy of the Thyroid Gland.
Hyoid bone
Superior
thyroid artery
Thyroid cartilage
of larynx Internal
jugular vein
Superior
thyroid vein
Cricoid cartilage
Common of larynx
carotid artery Left lobe of
Right lobe of thyroid gland
thyroid gland Isthmus of
thyroid gland
Middle thyroid
vein Inferior
thyroid artery
Thyrocervical
trunk Inferior
thyroid
Trachea veins
Outline of
clavicle
Outline of
sternum
a Location and anatomy of the thyroid gland 62

Figure 18–10b Anatomy of the Thyroid Gland.
Thyroid follicles
The thyroid gland LM × 122
b Histological organization of the thyroid 63

Figure 18–10c Anatomy of the Thyroid Gland.
Capillary
Capsule C cell
Cuboidal
epithelium
Follicle
of follicle
cavities Thyroid
follicle
Thyroid Thyroglobulin
follicle stored in colloid
of follicle
C cell
Follicles of the thyroid gland LM × 260
c Histological details of the thyroid gland showing thyroid follicles and both cell
types in the follicular epithelium ATLAS: Plate 18c
64
 Thyroglobulin
– Globular protein synthesized by follicle cells
– Secreted into colloid of thyroid follicles
– Contains the amino acid tyrosine
• The building block of thyroid hormones
 Thyroid hormones
– Thyroxine (T4), or tetraiodothyronine
• Contains four iodine atoms
– Triiodothyronine (T3)
• Contains three iodine atoms
65
Figure 18–11a Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones.
1
Iodide ions are absorbed from the digestive tract and
3 Thyroglobulin delivered to the thyroid gland by the bloodstream.
Follicle (contains T3 and T4) Follicle cavity
cavity
2
4 Endocytosis Iodide ions diffuse to the apical surface of each follicle cell
where they are converted into an atom of iodine (I0). The
2 Thyroglobulin tyrosine portion of thyroglobulin bind the iodine atoms.
Iodine 5 Lysosomal 3
atoms (I0) Other amino acids digestion
Iodine-containing thyroxine molecules become linked to
Tyrosine form thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
T4
T3
4
Diffusion Follicle cells remove thyroglobulin from the follicles by
endocytosis.
Diffusion 6 5
TSH-
sensitive Lysosomal enzymes break down the thyroglobulin, and the
ion pump Follicle cell amino acids and thyroid hormones enter the cytoplasm.
1
7 6
CAPILLARY The released T3 and T4 diffuse from the follicle cell into
the bloodstream.
Iodide ions (I–) 7

TBG, transthyretin, A majority of the T3 and T4 bind to transport proteins.
T4 & T 3 or albumin
a The synthesis, storage, and secretion of thyroid hormones.
66
Figure 18–11b Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones.
HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis Normal T3 and T4 concentrations, Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY normal body temperature RESTORED BY
DECREASING
STIMULUS RESTORED INCREASING
T3 and T4 T3 and
concentrations Receptor Anterior lobe T3 and T4 T4 concentrations
in blood or low concentrations increase in blood
body temperature in blood and body
Hypothalamus
temperature rises
TRH Effector
Anterior
Anterior lobe
lobe Thyroid
gland
TSH
Hypothalamus Anterior lobe Thyroid follicles

releases TRH releases TSH release T3 and T4
b The regulation of thyroid secretion.
67
 Thyroid-binding globulins (TBGs)
– Proteins that bind about 75 percent of T4 and 70
percent of T3 entering the bloodstream
 Transthyretin and albumin
– Bind most of the remaining thyroid hormones
 About 0.3 percent of T3 and 0.03 percent of T4 remain
unbound and free to diffuse into tissues
68
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
– Absence causes thyroid follicles to become inactive
• Neither synthesis nor secretion occurs
– Binds to plasma membrane receptors
• Activates key enzymes in thyroid hormone
production
69
– Affect almost every cell in body
– Enter target cells by transport system
– Bind to receptors
• In cytoplasm
• On surfaces of mitochondria
• In nucleus
– In children, essential to normal development of
skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems
70
 Thyroid hormones activate genes involved in glycolysis
and ATP production
– Results in calorigenic effect
• Increased energy consumption and heat generation
of cells
• Responsible for strong, immediate, and short-lived
increase in rate of cellular metabolism
71
 C cells
– Produce calcitonin (CT)
• Helps regulate concentrations of Ca2+ in body fluids
• Stimulates Ca2+ excretion by kidneys
• Prevents Ca2+ absorption by digestive tract
72
 Effects of thyroid hormones
– Elevate oxygen and energy consumption; in children,
may cause rise in body temperature
– Increase heart rate and force of contraction
– Increase sensitivity to sympathetic stimulation
– Maintain normal sensitivity of respiratory centers to
oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations
– Stimulate red blood cell formation
– Stimulate activity in other endocrine tissues
– Accelerate turnover of minerals in bone
73
18-5 Parathyroid Glands
 Parathyroid glands
– Two pairs
– Embedded in posterior surface of thyroid gland
– Altogether, the four glands weigh 1.6 g
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone
– Secreted by parathyroid (principal) cells in response
to low concentrations of Ca2+ in blood
– Antagonist for calcitonin
74
Figure 18–12a Anatomy of the Parathyroid Glands.
Left lobe of
thyroid gland
Parathyroid
glands
a Thyroid gland, posterior view.

The location of the parathyroid glands
on the posterior surface of the thyroid
lobes. (The thyroid lobes are located
anterior to the trachea.) 75
Figure 18–12b Anatomy of the Parathyroid Glands.
Blood vessel
Connective
tissue capsule
of parathyroid
gland
Thyroid
follicle
Parathyroid gland LM × 94
b Both parathyroid and thyroid tissues.
76
Figure 18–12c Anatomy of the Parathyroid Glands.
Parathyroid
(principal)
cells
Oxyphil cells
Parathyroid cells and oxyphil cells LM × 600
c Parathyroid gland cells.
77
18-5 Parathyroid Glands
 Major effects of parathyroid hormone
– Stimulates osteoclasts
• Accelerates mineral turnover and Ca2+ release
– Enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ by kidneys, reducing
urinary losses
– Stimulates formation and secretion of calcitriol by
kidneys
78
Figure 18–13 Homeostatic Regulation of the Blood Calcium Ion Concentration (Part 1 of 2) .
79
Figure 18–13 Homeostatic Regulation of the Blood Calcium Ion Concentration (Part 2 of 2) .
80
18-6 Adrenal Glands
 Adrenal glands
– Lie along superior border of each kidney
– Superficial adrenal cortex
• Stores lipids, especially cholesterol and fatty acids
• Manufactures steroid hormones (corticosteroids)
– Inner adrenal medulla
• Secretory activities controlled by sympathetic
division of ANS
• Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine
(catecholamines)
81
Figure 18–14a The Adrenal Gland and Adrenal Hormones.
Right and left inferior

Right superior phrenic arteries
adrenal arteries
Celiac trunk
Left adrenal gland
Right adrenal gland
Right middle Left middle

adrenal artery adrenal artery
Right inferior Left inferior
adrenal artery adrenal arteries
Left adrenal vein
Right renal artery
Left renal artery
Right renal vein Left renal vein
Superior
mesenteric artery
Abdominal aorta
Inferior vena cava
a A superficial view of the kidneys

and adrenal glands
82
18-6 Adrenal Glands
 Adrenal cortex
– Subdivided into three zones
• Outer zona glomerulosa
• Middle zona fasciculata
• Inner zona reticularis
83
18-6 Adrenal Glands
 Zona glomerulosa
– Outer region of adrenal cortex
– Produces mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone)
– Aldosterone
• Stimulates conservation of sodium ions and
elimination of potassium ions
• Increases sensitivity of salt receptors in taste buds
• Secreted in response to
– Drop in blood Na+, blood volume, or blood
pressure
– Rise in blood K+ concentration
84
18-6 Adrenal Glands
 Zona fasciculata
– Produces glucocorticoids
• Example: cortisol, corticosterone, and cortisone
• Secretion is regulated by negative feedback
– Glucocorticoids have inhibitory effect on production of
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in
hypothalamus
• ACTH in anterior pituitary
85
18-6 Adrenal Glands
 Effects of glucocorticoids
– Accelerate glucose synthesis and glycogen formation,
especially in liver
– Have anti-inflammatory effects
• Inhibit activities of white blood cells and other
components of immune system
86
18-6 Adrenal Glands
 Zona reticularis
– Branching network of endocrine cells
– Forms narrow band bordering each adrenal medulla
– Produces small quantities of androgens under
stimulation by ACTH
• Some are converted to estrogens in bloodstream
• Stimulate development of pubic hair before puberty
87
Figure 18–14b The Adrenal Gland and Adrenal Hormones.
Capsule
Cortex
Medulla
b An adrenal gland
in section
88
Figure 18–14c The Adrenal Gland and Adrenal Hormones.
The Adrenal Hormones

Region/Zone Hormones Primary Hormonal Effects Regulatory Control
Target
Adrenal capsule Mineralocorticoids, Kidneys Increase renal reabsorption Stimulated by angiotensin II,
primarily of Na+ and water (especially elevated blood K+ or fall in
Zona aldosterone in the presence of ADH), blood Na+; inhibited by ANP
glomerulosa and accelerate urinary loss and BNP
of K+
Glucocorticoids Most cells Increase rates of glucose Stimulated by ACTH from
(cortisol, corti- and glycogen formation the anterior lobe of the
costerone, and by the liver; release of pituitary gland
Zona cortisone) amino acids from skeletal
fasciculata muscles, and lipids from
adipose tissues; promote
Adrenal
peripheral utilization of
cortex lipids; anti-inflammatory
effects
Androgens Most cells Adrenal androgens stimulate Androgen secretion

Zona the development of pubic is stimulated by
reticularis hair in boys and girls before ACTH.
puberty.
Epinephrine (E), Most cells Increases cardiac activity, Stimulated by sympathetic

Adrenal
norepinephrine blood pressure, glycogen preganglionic fibers
medulla
(NE) breakdown, blood glucose
levels; releases lipids by
Adrenal gland LM × 140 adipose tissue
c The major regions and zones of an adrenal gland and the hormones they produce
89
18-6 Adrenal Glands
 Adrenal medulla
– Contains two types of secretory cells
• One produces epinephrine (E)
– 75–80 percent of medullary secretion
• The other produces norepinephrine (NE)
– 20–25 percent of medullary secretion
90
18-6 Adrenal Glands
 Results of activation of adrenal medulla
– In skeletal muscles, E and NE trigger mobilization of
glycogen reserves
• And accelerate breakdown of glucose
– In adipose tissue, stored fats are broken down into fatty
acids
– In the liver, glycogen molecules are broken down
– In the heart, stimulation of β1 receptors speeds and
strengthens cardiac muscle contraction
91
18-7 Pineal Gland
 Pineal gland
– Lies in posterior portion of roof of third ventricle
– Contains pinealocytes
• Synthesize hormone melatonin
– Functions of melatonin
• Influence circadian rhythms
• Inhibit reproductive functions
• Protect against damage by free radicals
92
Figure 18–15 Anatomy of the Pineal Gland.
Pinealocytes
Pineal gland LM × 280
93
18-8 Pancreas
 Pancreas
– Large gland
– Lies in loop between inferior border of stomach and
proximal portion of small intestine
– Mostly retroperitoneal
– Contains exocrine and endocrine cells
94
Figure 18–16a Anatomy of the Pancreas.
Pancreatic Body of Lobule Tail

Common duct pancreas
bile duct
Accessory
pancreatic
duct
Head of
pancreas
Small
intestine
(duodenum)
a The gross anatomy of the pancreas
95
18-8 Pancreas
 Exocrine pancreas
– Consists of clusters of gland cells called pancreatic
acini and their attached ducts
– Takes up roughly 99 percent of pancreatic volume
– Gland and duct cells secrete alkaline, enzyme-rich fluid
• Passes through a network of ducts to lumen of
digestive tract
96
18-8 Pancreas
 Endocrine pancreas
– Consists of cells that form clusters known as
pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
• Alpha (α) cells produce glucagon
• Beta (β) cells produce insulin
• Delta (δ) cells produce peptide hormone identical to
GH–IH
• Pancreatic polypeptide cells (PP cells) produce
pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
97
Figure 18–16b Anatomy of the Pancreas.
Pancreatic acini
(clusters of
exocrine cells)
Pancreatic islet
(islet of Langerhans)
Capillary
Pancreatic islet LM × 400
b A pancreatic islet surrounded by

exocrine cells
98
18-8 Pancreas
 When blood glucose level increases
– Beta cells secrete insulin
• Stimulating transport of glucose into target cells
 When blood glucose level decreases
– Alpha cells secrete glucagon
• Stimulating glycogen breakdown and glucose
release by liver
99
Figure 18–17 Homeostatic Regulation of the Blood Glucose Concentration (Part 1 of 2).
100
Figure 18–17 Homeostatic Regulation of the Blood Glucose Concentration (Part 2 of 2).
101
18-8 Pancreas
 Insulin
– Peptide hormone released by beta cells
– Effects on target cells
• Accelerating glucose uptake
• Accelerating glucose use and enhancing ATP
production
• Stimulating glycogen formation
• Stimulating amino acid absorption and protein
synthesis
• Stimulating triglyceride formation in adipocytes
102
18-8 Pancreas
 Glucagon
– Released by alpha cells
– Mobilizes energy reserves
– Effects on target cells
• Stimulating breakdown of glycogen in skeletal
muscle fibers and liver cells
• Stimulating breakdown of triglycerides in adipocytes
• Stimulating production and release of glucose in
liver cells (gluconeogenesis)
103
18-8 Pancreas
 Hyperglycemia
– Abnormally high glucose levels in the blood
 Diabetes mellitus
– Characterized by high glucose concentrations that
overwhelm reabsorption capabilities of kidneys
– Glucose appears in urine
– Polyuria
• Urine volume becomes excessive
104
18-8 Pancreas
 Type 1 diabetes mellitus
– Characterized by inadequate insulin production by
pancreatic beta cells
– Patients require daily injections or continuous infusion
of insulin
– Approximately 5 percent of cases
– Usually develops in children and young adults
105
18-8 Pancreas
 Type 2 diabetes mellitus
– Most common form
– Usually, normal amounts of insulin are produced, at
least initially
• Tissues do not respond properly (insulin resistance)
– Associated with obesity
• Weight loss can be an effective treatment
106
18-8 Pancreas
 Complications of untreated or poorly managed diabetes
mellitus include
– Kidney degeneration
– Retinal damage (diabetic retinopathy)
• May lead to blindness
– Early heart attacks (3–5 times more likely)
– Peripheral nerve problems (diabetic neuropathies)
– Peripheral tissue damage due to reduced blood flow
• Tissue death, ulceration, infection, and amputation
107
18-9 Secondary Endocrine Functions
 Organs with secondary endocrine functions
– Intestines (digestive system)
– Kidneys (urinary system)
– Heart (cardiovascular system)
– Thymus (lymphatic system)
– Gonads (reproductive system)
108
 Intestines
– Release hormones that coordinate digestive activities
 Kidneys
– Release the hormones calcitriol and erythropoietin
(EPO)
– Release the enzyme renin
• Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
• In the lungs, angiotensin-converting enzyme
converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II
109
Figure 18–19a Endocrine Functions of the Kidneys.
Sunlight
Food
Cholesterol
Epidermis
Cholecalciferol
Dietary
cholecalciferol
Parathyroid glands
Liver
Intermediate
form
Digestive
tract
PTH Stimulation of
calcium and
phosphate ion
Calcitriol absorption
Kidney
a The production of calcitriol 110

Figure 18–19b Endocrine Functions of the Kidneys.
Homeostasis
HOMEOSTASIS
Normal blood pressure and volume Homeostasis
DISTURBED BY RESTORED BY
DECREASING STIMULUS RESTORED INCREASING
blood pressure blood pressure

and Receptor Increase in blood and
volume pressure and volume volume
Kidney
Increased fluid intake

and retention
Endocrine Response
of Kidneys
Increased
Aldosterone secreted
Decreasing Erythropoietin (EPO) red blood cell
renal blood is released production ADH secreted
flow and O2
Renin is released Stimulation of thirst
ACE
Angiotensinogen Angiotensin I Angiotensin II
b The release of renin and erythropoietin, and an overview of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone

system beginning with the activation of angiotensinogen by renin
111
 Heart
– Produces natriuretic peptides (ANP and BNP)
• When blood volume becomes excessive
• Actions opposes those of angiotensin II
• Resulting in reduction in blood volume and blood
pressure
 Thymus
– Produces thymosin (blend of several hormones)
• Promotes development and maturation of
lymphocytes
112
 Testes
– Interstitial endocrine cells produce androgens
• Testosterone is an important androgen
– Nurse cells (Sertoli cells)
• Support differentiation and physical maturation of
sperm
• Secrete inhibin for negative feedback
113
 Ovaries
– Produce estrogens
• Principal estrogen is estradiol
– After ovulation, follicle cells
• Reorganize into corpus luteum
• Release estrogens and progesterone
114
 Adipose tissue
– Produces leptin (a peptide hormone)
• Provides feedback control of appetite
• Maintains normal levels of GnRH and gonadotropin
synthesis
115
18-10 Hormone Interactions
 When a cell receives instructions from two hormones at
the same time, four outcomes are possible
– Antagonistic effect
• Result depends on balance between two hormones
– Synergistic effect
• Additive effect
– Permissive effect
• One hormone is needed for another to produce
effect
– Integrative effect
• Hormones produce different but complementary
results
116
 Hormones important to growth
– Growth hormone
– Thyroid hormones
– Insulin
– Parathyroid hormone and calcitriol
– Reproductive hormones
117
 Growth hormone (GH)
– In children
• Supports muscular and skeletal development
– In adults
• Maintains normal blood glucose concentrations
• Mobilizes lipid reserves
118
– If absent during fetal development or for first year after
birth
• Nervous system fails to develop normally
• Developmental delay results
– If T4 concentrations decline before puberty
• Normal skeletal development does not continue
119
 Insulin
– Allows passage of glucose and amino acids across
plasma membranes
– Important for growing cells
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitriol
– Promote absorption of calcium salts from bloodstream
for deposition in bone
– Inadequate levels result in weak, flexible bones
120
 Reproductive hormones
– Androgens in males, estrogens in females
– Stimulate cell growth and differentiation in target
tissues
– Produce gender-related differences in
• Skeletal proportions
• Secondary sex characteristics
121
 Stress
– Any condition that threatens homeostasis
– General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
• Also called stress response
• How body responds to stress-causing factors
• Divided into three phases
– Alarm phase
– Resistance phase
– Exhaustion phase
122
 General adaptation syndrome
– Alarm phase
• Immediate response to stress
• Directed by sympathetic division of ANS
• Energy reserves (mainly glucose) are mobilized
• Body prepares “fight or flight” responses
• Epinephrine is dominant hormone
123
– Resistance phase
• Occurs if stress lasts longer than a few hours
• May last for weeks or months
• Glucocorticoids are dominant hormones
• Lipids and amino acids are mobilized for energy
• Glucose is conserved for use by nervous tissue
124
– Exhaustion phase
• Begins when homeostatic regulation breaks down
• Drop in K+ levels due to aldosterone produced in
resistance phase
• Failure of one or more organ systems will be fatal
125
 Hormone changes
– Can affect behavior, intellectual capabilities, memory,
learning, and emotional states
 Few functional changes occur with age
– Reproductive hormones decline in concentration
– Some endocrine tissues become less responsive to
stimulation
126
Figure 18–21 Integration of the ENDOCRINE system with the other body systems presented so far.
Integumentary System Nervous System
• The Nervous System produces

hypothalamic hormones that directly
control pituitary secretions and
indirectly control secretions of other
endocrine organs; controls adrenal
• The endocrine system secretes sex medulla; secretes ADH and oxytocin
hormones that stimulate sebaceous
gland activity, influence hair growth, • The endocrine system secretes
fat distribution, and apocrine sweat several hormones that affect neural
gland activity; PRL that stimulates metabolism and brain development;
development of mammary glands; hormones that help regulate fluid and
adrenal hormones that alter dermal electrolyte balance; reproductive
blood flow; MSH that stimulates hormones that influence CNS
melanocyte activity development and behaviors
Skeletal System
Endocrine System
• The Skeletal System protects
endocrine organs, especially in brain, The endocrine system provides
chest, and pelvic cavity long-term regulation and adjustments
of homeostatic mechanisms that affect
• The endocrine system regulates many body functions. It:
skeletal growth with several • regulates fluid and electrolyte
hormones; calcium homeostasis balance
regulated primarily by parathyroid • regulates cell and tissue metabolism
hormone; sex hormones speed • regulates growth and development
growth and closure of epiphyseal • regulates reproductive functions
cartilages at puberty and help • responds to stressful stimuli through
maintain bone mass in adults the general adaptation syndrome
(GAS)
Muscular System
• The Muscular System provides

protection for some endocrine
organs
• The endocrine system secretes

hormones that adjust muscle
metabolism, energy production,
and growth; regulate calcium and
phosphate levels in body fluids;
speed skeletal muscle growth
127

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Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Hypothalamus Pineal Gland

Organs with Secondary

Pancreas Kidneys See

The first messenger A G protein is an

a Effects on cAMP Level

If levels of cAMP increase, In some instances, G protein

First Messenger Examples First Messenger Examples

The first messenger A G protein is an

b Effects on Ca2+ Level

First Messenger Examples

a Steroid hormones diffuse through the plasma membrane

Target cell response

b Thyroid hormones enter the cytoplasm and bind to

Increased Alteration of cellular

Anterior Pituitary Lobe

a Relationship of the pituitary

Anterior Pituitary Lobe Posterior

Secretes other Secretes Releases

b Histology of the pituitary gland showing the

Production of Secretion of regulatory Control of

Anterior lobe Posterior lobe

Hormones secreted by Release of antidiuretic Secretion of epinephrine (E)

Supra-optic nuclei Paraventricular nuclei Neurosecretory neurons

The superior hypophyseal artery delivers

Infundibulum The portal vessels deliver blood containing

Endocrine cells Hypophyseal veins carry blood containing

Typical pattern of regulation when multiple endocrine organs are involved

Endocrine Endocrine Thyroid Adrenal

Hormone 2 Hormone 2 Thyroid Inhibin Progesterone

Hypothalamus KEY TO PITUITARY HORMONES:

Epinephrine and Liver MSH

Variations on the typical pattern of regulation of endocrine

Variations on the typical pattern of regulation of endocrine

c The regulation of growth

Stimulate growth of skeletal muscle,

Hypothalamus KEY TO PITUITARY HORMONES:

Direct Release ACTH Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Hypothalamus KEY TO PITUITARY HORMONES:

a Location and anatomy of the thyroid gland 62

The thyroid gland LM × 122

b Histological organization of the thyroid 63

Follicles of the thyroid gland LM × 260

Iodide ions (I–) 7

a The synthesis, storage, and secretion of thyroid hormones.

Hypothalamus Anterior lobe Thyroid follicles

b The regulation of thyroid secretion.

a Thyroid gland, posterior view.

b Both parathyroid and thyroid tissues.

Parathyroid cells and oxyphil cells LM × 600

c Parathyroid gland cells.

Right and left inferior

Right middle Left middle

a A superficial view of the kidneys

The Adrenal Hormones

Androgens Most cells Adrenal androgens stimulate Androgen secretion

Epinephrine (E), Most cells Increases cardiac activity, Stimulated by sympathetic

Pineal gland LM × 280