How Science effects

our worldview
How Science effects our worldview

 Philosophers refer to the study of reality as metaphysics.

 While these thinkers have traditionally approached metaphysical questions from a
conceptual perspective, scientific advancements have prompted reconsideration of
some established metaphysical beliefs.
 It's important to note that metaphysics doesn't explore the paranormal.
 In our discussion, we'll reference the germ theory of disease as an example. This
theory, which identifies harmful bacteria as the cause of certain diseases, led to a
revised understanding of the human body's functioning and its relationship with
the external environment.
Study of Reality

 René Descartes, regarded as the pioneer of

modern philosophy, initiated his philosophical
journey with a pivotal question: How can we be
certain of a reality existing beyond our individual
perceptions?
 We are all aware of our personal experiences and
can trust their authenticity, affirming our
existence. But, how can we be sure that our inner
experiences genuinely reflect external entities?
Study of Reality

 For instance, while you can perceive a strawberry

through senses like sight, smell, touch, and taste,
these sensations exist within your mind.
 So, how can you be certain that an external world
exists? And if it does, how can you verify that it
mirrors your inner experiences?
 If every experience is mental, how can you
confirm that what you perceive as strawberry is
truly bread in the external world?
Study of Reality

 Descartes pondered the possibility that he might be merely dreaming or that an

evil demon could be deceiving him by implanting false experiences in his mind,
leading him to mistakenly perceive a fabricated universe as real.
 However, he dismissed this notion, partly because our experiences have consistent
patterns that seem beyond our capacity to manipulate or fabricate. When we
diligently record our observations, intricate patterns arise, pointing towards
systems we hadn't previously conceived.

 Descartes primarily attributed these consistent patterns to the existence of a

perfect God.
Science

 The methodical examination of these observed patterns constitutes science.

We analyze these patterns and develop theories to elucidate their origins. These
theories propose underlying mechanisms presumed to exist in the world,
accounting for the observed patterns.
 Such theories not only interpret our existing observations but also forecast future
ones. If our predictions materialize, we regard it as validation that the proposed
mechanisms are probably components of the actual world.

Theories to Mechanisms
Observed
explain responsible for
patterns
patterns patterns
Science

 In this course, we will explore how scientific advancements in the 20th and 21st
centuries reshaped our understanding of reality and how this transformation
interacts with other intellectual pursuits.
 Scientific theories provide us with varied perspectives on the reality we inhabit.
Germ Theory of
Diseases
 Descartes posited that humans are composed of
two distinct entities: the body and the mind.
 While the body operates mechanically, governed
by the laws of physics, the mind (or soul, in
Descartes' view) is immaterial and is the seat of
will.
 For a long time, medical science predominantly
viewed the human body through this mechanistic
lens.
Germ Theory of
Diseases
 In the 1840s, Ignaz Semmelweis, an Austrian physician, worked at
the First Maternity Ward of the Vienna General Hospital.
 He observed a notably high incidence of childbed (puerperal)
fever in his ward. The disease affected 2% of the general
population but soared to 8-12% in his ward.
 Grounded in the Cartesian mechanistic outlook on the body,
Semmelweis explored various causes for the disease in line with
this perspective.
 However, an epiphany struck when a fellow doctor succumbed to
childbed fever following an accidental cut from a scalpel during
an autopsy. Semmelweis began to suspect that medical
professionals might be inadvertently transmitting the disease.
Germ Theory of Diseases

 To combat this, he mandated that staff in his ward

disinfect their clothing and thoroughly wash their hands
using a chlorine solution before attending to births.
 Following these measures, there was a significant
decline in childbed fever cases. Semmelweis attributed
the disease to bacteria found in both deceased and
infected tissues.
 Despite this breakthrough, Semmelweis's bacterial
theory faced widespread skepticism. Prevailing medical
thought considered humans as machines, with ailments
resulting solely from mechanical dysfunctions. The
notion of microscopic organisms residing within us and
causing illnesses was dismissed as preposterous.
Germ Theory of Diseases

 After the contributions of the French scientist Louis Pasteur, the

germ theory of disease became widely recognized, necessitating
a revision of our understanding of reality.
 We ceased to view ourselves as "ghosts in a machine." Instead,
we likened ourselves to fortresses besieged by microscopic
adversaries.
 Blood was no longer analogized to oil or hydraulic fluid coursing
through our veins; white blood cells were seen as defenders
fighting against minuscule intruders.
 This paradigm shift reshaped our comprehension of human
physiology and health.
Germ Theory of Diseases

 In the century that succeeded Semmelweis's findings, this new perspective paved
the way for vaccines that eliminated diseases ranging from smallpox to polio, and
it fostered novel lifestyle changes.
 Cleanliness became paramount, not merely a virtue aligned with godliness, but a
vital key to sustaining life.
Germ Theory of Diseases

 Shortly after the pioneering works of Semmelweis and

Pasteur, we encounter the literary creations of Jules
Verne and H.G. Wells.
 These authors envisioned novel realms deep under the
seas, on the Moon, and even journeying back through
time. This era was marked by groundbreaking
discoveries. The realization that the world held
phenomena beyond our prior knowledge was both
exhilarating and unsettling.
 It gave birth to the entire genre of science fiction.
Society became cognizant of the importance of
grounding our understanding of reality in scientific
exploration.
Earthquake

 In Greek mythology, Poseidon was the cause and god

of earthquakes.
 When he was in a bad mood, he struck the ground with
a trident, causing earthquakes and other calamities.
 He also used earthquakes to punish and inflict fear
upon people as revenge.
Plate Tectonics

 Earth is divided into a dozen or so major lithospheric plates as well as a few

smaller ones.
 Plates are in motion and continually changing in shape and size.
 The largest plate is the Pacific Plate.
 Several plates include an entire continent plus a large area of seafloor.
Earthquake

 Most faults in the Earth’s crust don’t move for a long time. But in
some cases, the rock on either side of a fault slowly deforms over
time due to tectonic forces.
 Earthquakes are usually caused when underground rock suddenly
breaks and there is rapid motion along a fault. This sudden release of
energy causes the seismic waves that make the ground shake.
 During and after the earthquake, the plates or blocks of rock start
moving—and they continue to move until they get stuck again.
 The spot underground where the rock first breaks is called the focus,
or hypocenter of the earthquake. The place right above the focus (at
the ground surface) is called the epicenter of the earthquake.
Earthquake
Kuhn’s view of Scientific
Theories
 In his 1962 publication, "The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions," Thomas Kuhn observes that iconic
figures like Newton, Darwin, and Einstein often
represent our idea of a scientist.
 However, the daily endeavors of most scientists differ
markedly from the groundbreaking contributions of
these luminaries.
 These renowned figures, according to Kuhn, epitomize
"revolutionary science," which stands in contrast to the
more routine "normal science."
Kuhn’s view of Scientific Theories

 Practitioners of "normal science" operate within an established framework, or

paradigm, which delineates acceptable questions, prescribes specific tools for
inquiry, and defines what constitutes a valid answer.
 Essentially, normal science entails asking questions that the paradigm recognizes
as valid, using the methods it sanctions, and seeking answers that fit within its
boundaries.
Kuhn’s view of Scientific Theories

 These scientists typically don't challenge the prevailing paradigm. Instead, they
educate the next generation to adhere to its principles.
 Questioning the paradigm is often seen as not just challenging a set of ideas, but
as disputing the very essence of rational thought.
 Kuhn posits that rationality is inherently tied to the paradigm. Since this
framework informs our understanding of reality and its mechanics, questioning it,
from the perspective of those within its confines, can verge on the absurd.
Kuhn’s view of Scientific Theories

 Every so often, discrepancies arise. There exist questions that the current
paradigm acknowledges, but even when appropriate methodologies are utilized,
the derived answers don't align with the paradigm's expectations.
 The initial instinct is to assume a mistake was made by the practicing scientists.
Yet, at times, even after thorough verification, these inconsistencies persist.
 Kuhn suggests that these unresolved discrepancies are often sidelined until they
either accumulate in number or become too glaring to overlook. When this
happens, the scientific community is plunged into a state of turmoil, compelling
them to reexamine the existing paradigm.
 If the disruptions are profound enough, some might venture into previously
uncharted territory: adopting an entirely new paradigm, replete with fresh
foundational concepts and a revamped interpretation of reality.
Kuhn’s view of Scientific Theories

 Those championing the new paradigm are often viewed with skepticism by the
mainstream community, as they seem to defy the established "scientific thought,"
which is fundamentally shaped by the prevailing paradigm.
 However, if this emergent paradigm begins to show promise and gains traction,
some might gravitate towards it, abandoning old beliefs. When a significant
portion of the community adopts this new framework, a scientific revolution
ensues.
 Much like how political revolutions can overhaul governance structures,
introducing new legislative realities in place of the old, a scientific revolution, as
Kuhn describes, instigates a paradigm shift in our perception of reality,
compelling us to see the world anew.
Kuhn’s view of Scientific Theories

Culture Science

View of
Reality
Moving Past the Fortress Body

 The breakthrough initiated by Semmelweis appears to have been fully realized.

 The dominant view has been that bacteria are external threats, infiltrating our
body's intricate systems, which we need to defend against.
 However, a shifting paradigm is emerging, challenging the perception of our
bodies as impregnable fortresses and bacteria as adversaries.
Moving Past the Fortress
Body
 Recent research into the interplay between medications
and our digestive processes has unveiled approximately
100 trillion bacteria residing naturally within our gut.
 These microorganisms perform pivotal roles, such as
transforming specific chemicals in our food into usable
compounds for our body and fostering an environment
conducive to effective immune responses.
 This internal bacterial network, known as the microbiome,
is fundamental to our well-being. Far from being mere
intruders, many of these bacteria act as allies.
Moving
Past the
Fortress
Body
Moving Past the Fortress Body

 While some bacteria can indeed be detrimental and their elimination is essential
for treating particular conditions, the very tools we employ for this purpose, such
as antibiotics, can inadvertently decimate the beneficial bacteria within our
microbiome.
 By failing to recognize this, we've inadvertently caused self-harm. The revelation
challenges our conventional understanding of self: we aren't mere standalone
entities, but rather, we are ambulatory ecosystems.
Moving Past the Fortress
Body
 Interestingly, this reimagining of the concept of a person reflects a
recurring theme throughout this course.
 We often start with a scientific theory that views entities as
isolated units, subjecting these stand-alone elements to intensive
scrutiny.
 However, we soon recognize that understanding reality isn't just
about examining individual components.
 Instead, it's crucial to consider how these parts relate and interact
with one another.
 Over time, we come to realize that what we're dealing with isn't
merely a collection of discrete units, but rather a sophisticated,
interconnected system marked by mutual dependence.
The Ancient Greek
Worldview
 The ancient Greeks' perspective on the world revolved
around the principle of teleology, the belief that every
change is purpose-driven, pushing towards a specific
end or objective.
 They held that the universe was orderly and aspired
towards a singular goal: perfection.
 Once something achieved this state of perfection, it
would remain unchanging; otherwise, it would
continue to evolve towards this ultimate state.
The Ancient Greek
Worldview
 This perspective inspired Plato's renowned
representation of reality, as depicted in his allegory
of the cave in "The Republic".
 He proposed the existence of two distinct realms:
the physical world, constantly in flux and never
reaching perfection, and the realm of ideas or forms.
 The ever-changing nature of the material world
meant it was perpetually flawed. On the other hand,
the realm of ideas consisted of eternal, unchanging
essences or "forms" that defined various species.
 True understanding, according to Plato, arose from
recognizing these immaterial forms, transcending
the imperfect physical manifestations of them.
The Ancient Greek
Worldview
 Aristotle, like Plato, was rooted in teleological
thinking, asserting that reality consistently aimed
for a static, perfect state.
 He expanded upon Plato's concept of forms,
suggesting that all entities belonged to a species
defined by inherent traits.
 However, Aristotle diverged from Plato in the
placement of these forms. Instead of assigning
them to a separate realm, Aristotle believed these
ideal essences resided within the very soul of each
entity, representing its latent potential waiting to
be realized.
The Ancient Greek
Worldview
 Aristotle's essentialist views formed the foundation for
his scientific theories, particularly in chemistry and
physics.
 He posited that every material object was composed of
four fundamental elements: earth, water, air, and fire.
The Ancient Greek
Worldview
 Each of Aristotle's four elements possesses an inherent
essence that designates its intended location within the
universe.
 When Aristotle stated that earth is at the universe's
center, he wasn't suggesting that our planet, Earth,
occupied the centermost point of space.
 Instead, he was observing the evident fact that soil or
dirt descends directly downward.
The Ancient Greek
Worldview
 The ancient Greeks were aware that Earth is spherical.
Observing that dirt consistently falls straight down from
any point on its surface indicates that it always
gravitates towards the sphere's center.
 Therefore, when Aristotle asserted that earth (meaning
soil) is at the universe's center, he implied that soil
naturally settles at this central point and remains there.
 Similarly, water moves directly downward, but it doesn't
share the same central place as soil; it naturally rests
atop it. This means water's designated position forms a
sphere around soil's central location.
 Following this pattern, air finds its natural space above
water, while fire aspires to rise above the realm of air.
The Ancient Greek
Worldview
 Every terrestrial element is drawn towards its natural
position and, once there, it tends to stay put. This movement
is prompted by an intrinsic force based on the element's
nature.
 The Greeks posited that while everything in our immediate
vicinity comprises these four elements, celestial entities like
the Sun, Moon, and distant stars are composed of a distinct
substance known as aether.
 Being a superior and more refined element, aether grants
objects their impeccable spherical shape. Consequently,
heavenly bodies are viewed as perfect spheres, moving in
circular orbits, deemed the most harmonious two-
dimensional trajectories.
The Ancient
Greek Worldview
 Aristotle faced a conundrum
because observations showed that
simple circular paths couldn't
explain the movements of celestial
bodies. Notably, planets sometimes
displayed retrograde motions. To
address this, Aristotle and his
contemporaries introduced the
concept of epicycles, which are
circles within circles.
The Ancient Greek
Worldview
 In the 2nd century, Claudius Ptolemy, writing
from Alexandria, expanded upon this idea,
culminating in his monumental work, the
Almagest. This tome provided comprehensive
details of the motions of all celestial objects
visible to the naked eye. To precisely characterize
their paths, Ptolemy employed advanced
mathematical constructs: he used epicycles
(multiple concentric circles), eccentricities
(elliptical orbits), and ecliptics (orbits that were
off-center).
 Later on, Muslim astronomers further refined
Ptolemy's findings.
The Ancient Greek
Worldview
 In the 5th century, Augustine drew upon Plato's ideas to
provide a philosophical foundation for Christianity. The
dualistic nature of Plato's world conveniently aligned with
Christian theology, juxtaposing a flawed, temporal world with
an eternal, pristine spiritual realm.
 Later, Thomas Aquinas adapted Aristotle's philosophy to
better align with Christian beliefs. Aristotle's view, which
lacked a specific creation event and posited that celestial
objects made of aether have been moving in circles eternally,
was at odds with Christian teachings.
 Aquinas, therefore, modified Aristotle's concept of the prime
mover, responsible for perpetual motion, to align with the
Christian understanding of a first cause: the Creator God
depicted in the Old Testament. Eventually, Aquinas's writings
were adopted as official church doctrine.
The Ancient Greek
Worldview
 Muslim philosophy and mysticism integrated the
Greek worldview, leading to the development of
distinct theories.
 The Kalam schools, for instance, leaned towards
the atomistic/mechanistic perspective inspired by
Democritus.
 Greek insights largely influenced Muslim medical
understanding, especially in terms of human
anatomy.
 Elements such as fire, water, and earth were linked
to those mentioned in the Quran, interpreting its
teachings through the prism of the ancient Greek
worldview.
The Scientific
Revolution
 Challenging the Aristotelian worldview became a
defining feature of the Scientific Revolution, and
Nicolas Copernicus was among the first to
significantly contest it.
 Copernicus proposed a simpler alternative to
Ptolemy’s celestial model based on Aristotle's
teachings: he shifted Earth away from the center
of the universe, suggesting that it, along with
other planets, revolved around the Sun.
The Scientific
Revolution
 Placing Earth away from the universe's center was
seen as not only a rejection of Aristotelian doctrine
but also a slight to divine creation.However, this
perspective began to gain traction among the
learned.
 In "The Starry Messenger," Galileo Galilei
chronicled his observations that contradicted
Aristotelian beliefs.
 For instance, his intricate sketches of the Moon’s
craters and mountains contradicted the Aristotelian
claim of the Moon being composed of aether,
implying it should be perfectly spherical.
The Scientific
Revolution
 Johannes Kepler, who lived during Galileo's time, utilized the
data collected by Dutch astronomer Tycho Brahe to develop a
model of planetary movement that eliminated the need for
epicycles. Through experimentation, Kepler found that
elliptical orbits with the Sun at one of the foci closely matched
observed data. He formulated three mathematical laws that
described not just the orbits' shapes but also the relationships
between a planet's distance from the Sun and its orbital
period.
 While Kepler's findings were groundbreaking, the reasons
behind them remained unclear. Aristotle’s belief in circular
orbits was rooted in their perceived perfection, and the
church's commitment to these orbits, albeit in a modified
Aristotelian manner, had theological underpinnings. The
rationale for elliptical orbits was unresolved until Newton's
time.
The Revolution of
Newton
 Isaac Newton formulated a concise theory
comprising four foundational laws: three governing
motion and one defining universal gravitation.
 The first law states that an object, unless acted upon
by an external force, will maintain its current state of
motion, moving consistently in a straight line.
 The second law details how an object subjected to an
external force behaves. The acceleration of the object
is determined by the force exerted on it and its mass.
 The third law posits that every action triggers an
equal and opposite reaction.
The Revolution of
Newton
 While these three laws alone explained many phenomena,
their combined application with the universal law of
gravitation truly showcased their potency. This
gravitational law asserts that any two objects with mass
will exert an attractive force on each other, which is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
separating them.
 Together, these motion laws and the gravitational law
elucidate a myriad of natural occurrences, such as
Kepler’s elliptical planetary paths, tidal movements, and
the trajectories of projectiles, illuminating the fundamental
workings of our universe.
The Revolution of Newton

 Newton's laws not only excelled in explaining and predicting phenomena, but
they also fundamentally challenged Aristotle's principles.
 While Aristotle posited that an object's inherent state is at rest in its designated
location, Newton argued that an object's inherent motion is in a straight line at a
consistent speed.
 Aristotle believed objects moved of their own accord, seeking their designated places,
while Newton contended that objects couldn't initiate their own movement.
 Furthermore, Aristotle had distinct explanations for the motions of terrestrial objects
and celestial bodies. In contrast, Newton's law of gravitation was universal, applying
consistently to all things.
 Whereas Aristotle's perspective was reinforced by the authoritative might of the
Catholic Church, Newton's understanding emerged from simple observation, a
practice accessible to anyone.
The Revolution of Newton

 Consequently, Newton's groundbreaking insights greatly invigorated the

Enlightenment.
 The resulting Enlightenment worldview depicted a universe governed by
discernible and logical principles. This contrasted sharply with the existing
religious and monarchical systems that concentrated power within select
hierarchies.
 The Enlightenment empowered every individual with the means to grasp the
world around them.
 This newfound understanding bolstered the ideals of democracy and freedom,
eventually paving the way for democratic nations underpinned by free-market
economies.
Enlightment Picture of
Reality
 We live in a well ordered predictable universe.
 We exist as perfectly rational agents, capable of observation and
reason
 As rational agents, we too are predictable entities.
 This gave rise to emergence of social sciences which study
humans and their interactions scientifically.

 This lead to romantic backclash: Strove to put irrational back as

the basis for true humanity.
Laws vs. Theories

 Scientific Theory:

 A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is based

on a body of evidence. Theories are comprehensive and have stood up to repeated
testing and scrutiny.
 Examples: The theory of evolution by natural selection, the atomic theory, and the
theory of relativity are examples of scientific theories.
 Theories provide overarching explanations for a wide variety of phenomena. They
can lead to predictions about natural events or phenomena that have not yet been
observed.
Laws vs. Theories

 Scientific Law:

 A statement that describes a consistent and universal relationship observed in

nature. Laws are typically more specific than theories and do not try to explain
"why" something happens, just "that" it happens.
 Newton's laws of motion, the law of conservation of energy, and Mendel’s laws of
inheritance are examples of scientific laws.
 Laws summarize observations. When we say something is a "law," we mean it is a
consistent and universal relationship we've observed.
Laws vs. Theories

 Do theories evolve into laws?

 No, theories do not evolve into laws. They are distinct concepts with different
purposes. A theory doesn't "graduate" to become a law. Instead, theories can be
supported by laws, just as they can be supported by facts and other pieces of
evidence.
Laws vs. Theories

 Are laws more likely to be true?

 Both scientific theories and laws are based on empirical evidence and have
withstood rigorous testing and scrutiny. However, the concept of "truth" in
science is nuanced. Both theories and laws are as "true" as the current evidence
supports. But it's worth noting that all scientific knowledge is provisional and
subject to revision in light of new evidence.
 In other words, while laws describe consistent observations and theories provide
the best current explanations for those observations, neither is absolutely immune
to being revised or refuted if new information comes to light.
 That said, well-established laws and theories are built upon vast amounts of
evidence and are unlikely to be entirely overturned, though they might be refined
or expanded upon.