Ecosystem

Definition and Components of an Ecosystem

• An ecosystem refers to a community of living organisms (biotic
factors) interacting with their physical environment (abiotic factors) as
a functional unit.
• Biotic factors include all living organisms, such as plants, animals,
microorganisms, and their interactions within the ecosystem.
• Abiotic factors include non-living components, such as air, water,
sunlight, soil, temperature, and nutrients.
Interactions Between Biotic and Abiotic
Factors
• Biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem interact and influence each
other.
• Biotic factors depend on abiotic factors for their survival and
reproduction. For example, plants require sunlight, water, and
nutrients from the soil for photosynthesis and growth.
• Abiotic factors are influenced by biotic factors as well. For example,
plants release oxygen into the atmosphere through photosynthesis,
which affects the air composition
 Functions of an ecosystem

Major functional attributes of ecosystem are

• Energy Flow
• Nutrients cycling
• Productivity and decomposition
• Development and stabilization
Levels of Organization Within an Ecosystem
• a. Individuals: An individual refers to a single organism of a particular species.
• Example: A single lion within a lion population.
• b. Populations: Populations consist of individuals of the same species living in a
particular area.
• Example: A group of lions living together in a savannah.
• c. Communities: Communities include all populations of different species living and
interacting in the same area.
• Example: A community in a forest may consist of various populations such as trees,
birds, insects, and mammals.
• Interactions between populations within a community can include predation,
competition for resources, symbiosis, and more.
Ecological Relationships and Interactions
• Predation: The interaction between a predator and its prey, where
one organism hunts and consumes another.
• Competition: The struggle between organisms for limited resources,
such as food, water, and shelter.
• Mutualism: A mutually beneficial relationship between two different
species, where both organisms gain advantages.
• Commensalism: A relationship where one organism benefits, while
the other is neither harmed nor benefited.
• Parasitism: An association between two species where one organism
(parasite) benefits at the expense of the other organism (host).
Niche and Habitat Concepts
• Habitat: The physical environment where an organism lives, including
its abiotic and biotic components.
• Niche: The role and position of an organism within its habitat,
including its interactions with other organisms and its utilization of
resources.
• Each organism has a specific niche that includes its food preferences,
habitat requirements, reproductive strategies, and interactions with
other species.
• The niche of an organism helps determine its ecological relationships
and its impact on the ecosystem.
Biotic and Abiotic Factors Influencing
Ecosystems
• Biotic Factors: Living components of an ecosystem that influence its
structure and function.

• Examples include plants, animals, microorganisms, fungi, and their

interactions.
• Biotic factors can affect the availability of resources, competition for
food, predation, and symbiotic relationships.
• Abiotic Factors: Non-living components of an ecosystem that influence its
characteristics.

• Examples include temperature, sunlight, precipitation, soil composition, water

availability, and topography.
• Abiotic factors affect the distribution of organisms, their physiological processes, and
their ability to survive and reproduce.
• Both biotic and abiotic factors interact and influence each other within an ecosystem.

• Changes in one factor can have cascading effects on other components, leading to
shifts in populations, community structure, and overall ecosystem dynamics.
Ecosystem Degradation and Resource
Utilization
Causes and Consequences of Ecosystem Degradation
Ecosystem degradation refers to the deterioration or loss of the structure, function, and
services provided by ecosystems.
Causes of ecosystem degradation include:
Deforestation and habitat destruction-The Amazon rainforest being cleared for cattle
ranching and soybean production.
Pollution of air, water, and soil-Industrial discharge polluting rivers and harming aquatic
life.
Overexploitation of natural resources-Overfishing of bluefin tuna, leading to declining
populations.
Climate change and global warming-Rising temperatures leading to coral bleaching in
the Great Barrier Reef.
Consequences of Ecosystem Degradation:
• Loss of Biodiversity: Extinction of species and disruption of ecological balance.
Example: The decline of pollinators such as bees, impacting plant reproduction and
crop yields.
• Disruption of Ecosystem Services: Reduction in vital services provided by
ecosystems. Example: Deforestation leading to reduced water regulation and
increased soil erosion.
• Decreased Resilience: Ecosystems become more vulnerable to disturbances and less
able to recover. Example: Destruction of mangrove forests weakening coastal
protection against storms and tsunamis.
• Impacts on Human Well-being: Reduction in food and water security, increased
vulnerability to natural disasters, and diminished livelihoods. Example: Deforestation
contributing to water scarcity and loss of livelihoods for local communities.
Sustainable Resource Utilization and
Conservation Strategies
• a. Sustainable Resource Utilization:

• Renewable Energy: Transitioning to renewable energy sources such as

solar, wind, and hydropower to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
• Sustainable Agriculture: Implementing practices like organic farming,
agroforestry, and precision irrigation to minimize environmental
impacts.
• Responsible Fishing and Forestry: Enforcing fishing quotas,
implementing ecosystem-based management, and promoting
sustainable logging practices.
Conservation Strategies:
• Protected Areas: Establishing and effectively managing protected areas
to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem integrity. Example: Serengeti
National Park in Tanzania.
• Habitat Restoration: Rehabilitating degraded habitats through
reforestation, wetland restoration, and ecological restoration projects.
Example: Restoring oyster reefs in Chesapeake Bay, USA.
• Sustainable Land Use Planning: Integrating conservation principles into
urban planning and land management to minimize habitat destruction
and promote sustainable development. Example: Curitiba, Brazil's urban
planning focusing on green spaces and public transportation.
Human Impact on Ecosystems
• a. Coral Reef Degradation: Overfishing, pollution, and rising ocean temperatures leading to coral
bleaching and the decline of coral reef ecosystems. Example: The Great Barrier Reef in Australia
facing significant threats from climate change and pollution.
• b. Deforestation: Clearing forests for agriculture, logging, and urbanization, resulting in habitat
loss, soil erosion, and climate change. Example: The destruction of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil
for agricultural expansion.
• c. Water Pollution: Industrial and agricultural runoff polluting water bodies, causing harm to
aquatic life and affecting human health. Example: The pollution of the Ganges River in India from
industrial waste and sewage.
• d. Overfishing: Unsustainable fishing practices depleting fish populations and disrupting marine
ecosystems. Example: The collapse of the cod fishery in Newfoundland, Canada, due to
overfishing.
• e. Climate Change: Greenhouse gas emissions from burning fossil fuels leading to rising
temperatures, sea-level rise, and shifts in ecosystems. Example: Melting polar ice caps and loss of
Arctic habitats for polar bears.
Structure and Functions of an Ecosystem
• Trophic Levels: Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers:
• Producers (Autotrophs): Organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis. Examples include plants, algae, and some bacteria.
• Consumers (Heterotrophs): Organisms that obtain energy by consuming other organisms.
• Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Feed on producers. Examples include grazing animals like deer
or rabbits.
• Secondary Consumers: Feed on primary consumers. Examples include carnivores like wolves or
lions.
• Tertiary Consumers: Feed on secondary consumers. Examples include top predators like sharks or
eagles.
• Decomposers: Break down organic matter and recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem.
Examples include bacteria, fungi, and detritivores like earthworms.
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem (Food Chains
and Food Webs)
• Food Chains: Linear representations of the transfer of energy from one
organism to another.
• Example: Grass → Rabbit → Fox
• Food Webs: Complex interconnected networks of food chains,
illustrating multiple feeding relationships within an ecosystem.
• Example: In a forest ecosystem, a food web may involve trees,
herbivores, predators, and decomposers, all interconnected through
various feeding relationships.
• Energy flows through trophic levels, with energy being transferred from
lower to higher trophic levels, but with energy loss at each transfer.
Understanding Food webs-Trophic
Levels
• A trophic level is the position occupied by an organism in a food chain.

• Trophic levels can be analyzed on an energy pyramid.

• Producers are found at the base of the pyramid and compromise the first
trophic level.

• Primary consumers make up the second trophic level.

• Secondary consumers make up the third trophic level.

• Finally tertiary consumers make up the top trophic level.

Ecological pyramids
• An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship
between the different living organisms at different trophic levels.
Importance of Ecological Pyramid
They show the feeding of different organisms in different ecosystems.
It shows the efficiency of energy transfer.
The condition of the ecosystem can be monitored, and any further
damage can be prevented.
types of ecological pyramids
Nutrient Cycling and Biogeochemical Cycles
Nutrient cycling involves the movement and recycling of essential nutrients within an ecosystem.
Nitrogen Fixation: Some bacteria, such as Rhizobium in the root nodules of leguminous plants, convert
atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3), a process called nitrogen fixation. This ammonia can be
used by plants.
Plant Uptake: Plants take up ammonia or nitrate (NO3-) from the soil through their roots. They use these
forms of nitrogen to build proteins, nucleic acids, and other essential molecules.
Consumption: Herbivores feed on plants and obtain the nitrogen-containing compounds present in the
plant tissues.
Decomposition: When plants and animals die or produce waste, decomposers such as bacteria and fungi
break down their organic matter. During decomposition, nitrogen is released from organic compounds in
the form of ammonium (NH4+).
Nitrification: Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonium (NH4+) into nitrite (NO2-) and then into nitrate
(NO3). This process is called nitrification.
• Denitrification: Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate (NO3-) back into
nitrogen gas (N2), which is released into the atmosphere. This occurs in
anaerobic conditions, such as waterlogged soils.
• Nitrogen Fixation (Again): Some free-living bacteria in the soil or
cyanobacteria in aquatic ecosystems perform nitrogen fixation,
converting atmospheric nitrogen (N2) back into ammonia (NH3),
restarting the cycle.
• The continuous cycling of nutrients ensures their availability for
different organisms within the ecosystem and supports the growth,
development, and functioning of various organisms at different trophic
levels.
The water cycle
• hydrologic cycle or the hydrological cycle
• the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface
of the Earth.
• Water changes its state through a variety of processes from
evaporation, melting and freezing, to sublimation, condensation, and
deposition. All these changes require the application of energy.
Stages of Water Cycle
• Evaporation
• Sublimation
• Condensation
• Precipitation
• Infiltration
• Runoff
The carbon cycle
• Carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon in elemental and
combined states on earth. Diamond and graphite are the elemental
forms of carbon and in a combined state, it is found as carbonates in
minerals and as carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere.
• Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds are
interchanged among the biosphere, geosphere, pedosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the earth.
Steps
• Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for
photosynthesis.
• These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets
bioaccumulated into their bodies.
• These animals and plants eventually die, and upon decomposing,
carbon is released back into the atmosphere.
• Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere
eventually become fossil fuels.
• These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pump
more carbon back into the atmosphere.
Importance of Carbon Cycle
• Even though carbon dioxide is found in small traces in the
atmosphere, it plays a vital role in balancing the energy and traps the
long-wave radiations from the sun. Therefore, it acts like a blanket
over the planet. If the carbon cycle is disturbed it will result in serious
consequences such as climatic changes and global warming.

• Carbon is an integral component of every life form on earth. From

proteins and lipids to even our DNA. Furthermore, all known life on
earth is based on carbon.
 Ecological Succession

• Ecological succession refers to the gradual and predictable process of change in

the species composition and community structure of an ecosystem over time. It
occurs in response to natural disturbances, such as volcanic eruptions, wildfires,
or human activities like deforestation. Ecological succession plays a vital role in
the recovery and renewal of ecosystems, leading to increased complexity and
diversity over time.
 two main types
• Primary Succession: This occurs in areas where no soil or living organisms
exist, such as newly formed volcanic islands or glacial retreat zones. The
process begins with pioneer species, which are the first colonizers capable
of surviving in harsh conditions. Over time, these pioneer species facilitate
soil formation through their decomposition, and as the soil develops, more
complex and larger plant species can establish themselves.
• Secondary Succession: This type of succession occurs in areas where soil is
present and where a disturbance, such as a forest fire or agricultural
clearing, has removed the existing vegetation. In secondary succession, the
process begins with fast-growing and opportunistic plant species that
quickly colonize the area.
Types of Ecosystem
• Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Aquatic Ecosystem-Freshwater Ecosystem,Marine Ecosystem
• Terrestrial Ecosystem-
• Forest Ecosystem
• Grassland Ecosystem
• Tundra Ecosystem
• Desert Ecosystem