Current Electricity

By Jeffrey Schandorf
Current
• In our previous lesson on static electricity, we defined conductors as materials that
allows electricity to flow through them.
• The flow of charged particles in a conductor is what is termed as electric current.
• Electric current is defined as the flow of electric charge.
• The unit for an electric charge is the Coulomb (C)
• When a charge flows, energy is released for work done.
• The quantity of electrical energy (electricity) depends on the number of charge (current)
that passes a point in one second
• Mathematically; electrical quantity, Q = Current, I X Time, t
• Therefore, current is the quantity of charge the passes a point on a conductor in one
second.
• Current, I = Q/t C/s
Current
• The unit for current is the Ampere (amps), symbol A
• The unit for quantity of electricity, Q (charge) is the Coulomb, symbol
C
• The magnitude of a charge on a single electron is equivalent to 1.6 X
10-19 C
• Mathematically: I = Q/t
Example
• A current of 150 mA flows for around a circuit for 1 minute. How
much electric charge flows around the circuit in this time?

• Write down the related equation

• Q=Ixt
• Q = 150 mA x 1 minute
• Q = 0.15 A x 60 s
• Q=9C
Ammeter
Ammeter
• To measure an electric current we use an ammeter
• There are two types, as shown in the figures.
• An analogue ammeter has a needle which moves across a scale.
• A digital ammeter gives a direct read-out in figures
• An ammeter may be calibrated to read out smaller current values
• A milliammeter measures current in milliamps (mA)
• A microammeter measures current in microamps (μA)
• 1millamp = 1 mA = 0.001 A
• 1 microamp = 1 μA = 0.000001 A
Ammeter
• An ammeter is connected into a circuit in series
• Current will flow through one terminal (positive, red) and out through
the other (negative, black)
• A current has the same value at any point in a single closed loop.
Direction of flow of current
Direction of flow of current
• Electrons, responsible for carrying electric charges in a conductor,
flows from the negative terminal to the positive terminal round the
circuit

• Conventional current flows from the positive terminal to the negative

terminal round the circuit.
• Conventional current direction is equivalent to the direction of
transfer of positive charge.
• It was defined before the electron was discovered.
Potential Difference (p.d)
• The movement of current in a conductor is similar to the flow of water along a
pipe.
• Water will flow from one end of the pipe to the other end when the level at one
end is raised (potential energy).
• Similarly, electricity will flow along a wire when the two ends have an electrical
potential difference in level.
• In a circuit, to push out electrons to produce the electric current, there must exist a
high potential relative to a zero or low potential for the current to flow.
• Sources, such as a cell, provides the potential difference (p.d) between two points
on the circuit for current to flow.
• Potential difference (p.d) between two points in a circuit could be defined as the
energy per coulomb released when electricity moves from one point to the other.
Potential Difference
• The unit for measuring p.d is the volt, symbol V
• 1Volt (1V) is the pd between two points if 1 joule of energy is
obtained when 1 coulomb moves between the points.
• Tiny values of volts are measured as millivolts (mV) and microvolts
(μV)
• Large values of volt are is measured in kilovolts (kV) and megavolts
(MV)
Voltmeter

• The instrument for measuring p.d is the voltmeter

Voltmeter
• The voltmeter is connected across the component or across two
points on the circuit because it is measuring the p.d between the two
ends of the component or points.
•
Electromotive Force (e.m.f)
• In a circuit, cells provide needed force to push electrons around the circuit.
• The e.m.f of a cell is the sum total of the potential differences which it can
produce across all the various components of a circuit.
• This includes the p.d required to drive the current through the cell itself.
• The e.m.f of a cell is also measured in volts (V)
• By definition in terms of energy, the e.m.f of a cell is defined as the total
work done in joules per coulomb of electricity conveyed in a circuit in
which the cell is connected
• Therefore, 1 V = 1 J/C
Resistance
• Resistance, R, of a substance is the ability of the substance to resist
the flow of electricity (or current) through it.
• Good conductors have low resistance while poor conductors have
high resistance.
• The current flowing in a circuit can be controlled by adding
components with electrical resistance to the circuit.
• The greater the resistance, the smaller the current that will flow.
• The resistance of a resistor is measured in ohms, symbol Ω
Defining resistance
• The resistance of a component is measured in ohms (Ω) and is
defined by the mathematical equation:

• This equation is known as the ohm’s equation

The Ohm’s Law
• For a good conductor, the resistance in a given conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied and inversely
proportional to the current, provided the temperature of the
conductor is constant.

• Mathematically,

•
Factors affecting resistance
• Length: doubling the length of a wire doubles its resistance

• Cross-sectional area: halving the cross-sectional area of a wire for the same
length doubles its resistance. So a thin wire has more resistance than a thick
wire.

• Material: a nichrome wire has more resistance than a copper wire of the same
size

• Temperature: for metal conductors, resistance increases with temperature.

But for semi-conductors, it decreases with temperature.
Factors affecting resistance
• The resistance of a wire is proportional to its length
• This means that if the length of a wire is doubled, its resistance will
double
• Mathematically, R ∝ l
• The resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its cross-
sectional area
• This means that is the cross-sectional area of a wire is doubled, its
resistance will halve
• Mathematically, R ∝ 1/A
Resistivity of a wire
• Therefore, Resistance R:
•

• Where ρ is a constant known as the resistivity of the wire,

• A is the cross-sectional area of the wire,
• L is the length of the wire
• Cross-sectional area is proportional to the diameter squared.
• This means that if the diameter is doubled, the cross-sectional area
will quadruple, causing the resistance to drop to a quarter.
Resistivity of a wire,
• The resistivity of a wire is defined as the resistance of a unit length of
the wire of unit cross-sectional area
• The unit for resistivity is ‘ohm meter’ (Ωm)
• Mathematically,
• For a circular wire, the cross-sectional area A = πr2
• When given the diameter value,
• OR, A = π(d/2)2
Example
• Wire X has a resistance of 18 Ω. Wire Y is made of the same material
and is at the same temperature. If Y is the same length as X, but 2
times the diameter, what is its resistance?
• Solution
• Since Y is made of the same material and at the same temperature, it
will have the same resistance for the same length.
• If the diameter is doubled, the cross-sectional area will quadruple.
• Therefore the resistance value will be
Resistance components
• A resistor is an electrical component made to provide resistance to
flow of electricity.

• In simple circuits, they reduce current.

• In more complicated circuits, such as those in radios, TVs, and

computers, they keep currents and p.ds at the level needed for other
components to work properly.
Types of resistors
• Standard resistors: have fixed resistance values
• Variable resistors (rheostats): are used for varying current.
• Thermistors: have a high resistance value when cold but much lower
resistance when hot. They contain semiconductor materials. Example,
electrical thermometers use a thermistor to detect temperature changes.
• Light-dependent resistors (LDRs): have a high resistance in the dark but a
low resistance in the light. They can be used in electronic circuits which
switch lights on and off automatically.
• Diodes: have an extremely high resistance in one direction but a low
resistance in the other direction. In effect, the allow current to flow in one
direction only.
Types of resistors
I-V Graphs
• The graph of current against p.d varies for different resistors.
• In all the resistance vary depending on the p.d.
• As the potential difference (voltage) across a component is
increased, the current in the component also increases
• The precise relationship between voltage and current can be different
for different types of components and is shown by an IV graph:
Graph of some resistors
Graph of ohmic resistor
• The IV graph for a resistor is very simple:
The current is proportional to the potential difference
• This is because the resistor has a constant resistance
Graph of a filament lamp
• For a lamp the relationship is more complicated:
The current increases at a proportionally slower rate than the
potential difference
• This is because:
• The current causes the filament in the lamp to heat up
• As the filament gets hot its resistance increases
• This opposes the current, causing it to increase at a slower rate
Electrical Energy
• As electricity passes around a circuit, energy is transferred from the
power source to the various components (which may then transfer
energy to the surroundings)
• As charge passes through the power supply it is given energy
• As it passes through each component it loses some energy
(transferring that energy to the component)
Electric Energy

The current transfers electrical energy from the power source

and to the components
Calculating Electrical Energy

• The amount of electrical energy used by a component or appliance depends

upon three things:
• The current
• The potential difference
• The amount of time the device is used for
E = QV
• The energy transferred can be calculated from the equation:
• energy transferred = current × potential difference × time

• E=I×V×t

• Where the unit of energy is the joule (J)

Electrical Power
• Power is generally defined as the rate of energy transfer.
• Mathematically, power

• In case of electrical circuits, the energy transferred in a time is given as:

•
• So power, P, used by the circuit is given by
•

•
Unit of electrical power
• The SI unit for electrical power is watts, symbol W.
• One watt, 1W, is defined as one joule per second, 1J/s
• For electrical appliances such as pressing iron, kettle, and heaters, the
power rating is stated in kilowatts (kW)
• It tells you the power the appliance will take if connected to a supply
of the correct voltage.
Power dissipated in a resistor
• When current flows through a resistor, it has a heating effect.
• The electrical energy is converted to thermal energy in the resistor.
• The energy is said to be dissipated in the resistor.
• To calculate the energy dissipated in the resistor:
•
• But p.d, V = IR
• Therefore P = I x IR
• Power,
Power dissipated in a resistor
• Also,
• Current,
• Substituting into

• Power,
•
Circuit Diagrams
Standard Circuit Symbols
• The diagram in the next slide shows the various circuit symbols that
could be used in circuit diagrams.
Diode Circuit Symbol

A diode is a component that only allows a current in one

direction
Series Circuits
• A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components,
connected end to end:
• It is composed of only one loop of interconnected electrical
components
• Note that the presence of a voltmeter, which is connected in parallel,
does not make the circuit a parallel circuit
Diagram of a series circuit
• In a series circuit the current is the same at all points

• When several cells are connected together in series, their combined

EMF is equal to the sum of their individual EMFs
Voltage in series
• In a series circuit, the sum of potential differences across the
components is equal to the total EMF of the power supply

In a series circuit the components share the EMF of the power supply
Voltage in series
Potential Difference in Series
• In a series circuit, the sum of potential differences across the
components is equal to the total EMF of the power supply
• In a series circuit the components share the EMF of the power supply
Parallel Circuit
• A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached along
separate branches of the circuit
• The advantages of this kind of circuit are:
• The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches
• If one component stops working the others will continue to function
• In a parallel circuit, the current splits up – some of it going one way
and the rest going the other
• This means that the current in each branch will be smaller than the
current from the power supply
Determining Current in Parallel
• Because the current splits up, the sum of currents in each branch will
equal the current from the power supply
• In a parallel circuit, the current splits up, dividing between the
various branches of the circuit
• Note that the current does not always split equally – often there will
be more current in some branches than in others
• The current in each branch will only be identical if the components
along each branch are identical (or at least have the same resistance)
Resistors in Series & Parallel
• When two or more components are connected in series:
• The combined resistance of the components is equal to the sum of
individual resistances
When several components are connected in series, their
combined resistance is equal to the sum of their individual
resistances
Resistors in Parallel
• When resistors are connected in parallel, the combined resistance
decreases and is less than the resistance of any of the individual
components
• If two resistors of equal resistance are connected in parallel, then the
combined resistance will halve
The above resistors will have a combined resistance of 2 Ω −
half the value of each resistor
Determining Resistance in Parallel

• More generally, to determine the combined resistance of any

combination of two resistors, you must use the equation:
• To calculate the resistance: First find the value of 1/R (by
adding 1/R1 + 1/R2)
• Next find the value of R by using the reciprocal button on your
calculator (labelled either x-1 or 1/x, depending on your calculator)
• The effective resistance, R of two resistors in parallel could be
calculated from:
•
Potential Divider (Potentiometre)
• When two resistors are connected in series, the potential difference
across the power source is shared between them
• The potential difference across each resistor depends upon its
resistance:
• The resistor with the largest resistance will have a greater potential difference
than the other one
• If the resistance of one of the resistors is increased, it will get a greater share of
the potential difference, whilst the other resistor will get a smaller share
•
• A potentiometer is a single component that (in its simplest form)
consists of a coil of wire with a sliding contact, midway along it
A potential divider splits the potential difference of a power
source between two components
A potentiometer is a kind of variable resistor

Moving the slider (the arrow in the diagram) changes the resistances (and hence potential
differences) of the upper and lower parts of the potentiometer

If the slider in the above diagram is moved upwards, the resistance of the lower part will increase
and so the potential difference across it will also increase
Relay
• A relay consists of two parts:
• A coil (electromagnet)
• A magnetic switch
When there is a current in the coil, it attracts the switch
which completed the right-hand part of the circuit

When there is a current in the coil, it creates a magnetic field which attracts the switch, closing it
This can be used to control a switch in a separate circuit, as shown in the above diagram
Thermistors
• A thermistor is a type of resistor (a thermal resistor) which changes its
resistance when it is heated up:
• As a thermistor gets hotter, its resistance decreases
• As it gets colder, its resistance increases
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
• An LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) is a type of resistor which changes
its resistance when light is shone on it:
• When more light is shone on an LDR its resistance decreases
• If an LDR is covered up (reducing the light hitting it) its resistance increases.
• Note: The symbol for an LDR is often drawn with a circle going around
it
Diagram showing an LDR circuit
Sensing Circuits
• Thermistors (or LDRs) may be used to create heat (or light) sensitive
circuits, which perform certain actions when the temperature (or
light) reaches a certain level
LDRs can be used in circuits where detecting changes
in light intensity are necessary (such as in street lamps)
• In the above circuit, an LDR is used, along with a relay, to control a bulb
• When it gets darker, the resistance of the LDR increases
• This causes the potential difference across the LDR to increase
• When this potential difference increases the current in the coil (part of the
relay) will increase
• When the current gets large enough the coil will attract the switch, closing it
and allowing a current to pass through the right-hand side of the circuit
•
• Temperature controlled circuits may be created by replacing the LDR
with a thermistor, and replacing the LDR with a suitable component
such as a buzzer or heater
Diode
• A diode is a component which only allows a current when the
potential difference is in the direction of the arrow
• A diode is a component which only allows charge to flow in one
direction through it
• If a power source is connected back to front then there will be no
current
In order to have a current, the diode must point around the
circuit from positive to negative
A diode can be used to rectify an alternating
current
• If a diode is connected to an a.c. (alternating current) power supply, it
will only allow a current half of the time
(This is called rectification)
Digital Electronics
Analogue Signals vs Digital Signals

• There are two types of signals:

• Analogue
• Digital
• An analogue signal is continuously varying and can take any value

• A digital signal can only take one of two (discrete) states –

commonly referred to as 1s and 0s (or highs and lows, or ons
and offs)
Logic Gates
• A logic gate is a digital electronic component that gives a particular
output, depending on the input(s) to it
A NOT gate
NOT gate (Inverter)
• Has a single input and one output.
• Will output a 1 if the input is NOT 1
An AND gate
• Has two inputs and one output
• Will output a 1 if both the first input AND the second input are 1
Outputs a 1 if both A AND B are 1
An OR gate
• Has two inputs and one output.
• Will output a 1 if either the first input OR the second input is 1
Outputs a 1 if either A OR B are 1
A NAND gate
• Has two inputs and one output
• Will output a 1 so long as the first input and the second input are not
both 1 (NOT AND)
NAND is short for NOT AND – the opposite
of an AND gate
A NOR gate
• Has two inputs and one output
• Will output a 1 if neither the first input NOR the second input is 1
NOR is short for NOT OR – the opposite of
an OR gate
Truth Tables
• Given a simple circuit involving several logic gates, you should be able
to construct a truth table showing how the outputs depend upon the
inputs to the circuit
• To solve problems like this, tackle them one step at a time, figuring
out how the state of the wires in the middle depends upon the input
to the circuit
Example:
• A digital circuit, consisting of three different logic gates
There are two inputs to the circuit, and so
there are four different possible inputs:
Start by considering how the state of wire X depends on the inputs
to the AND gate:
Next let’s consider how the state of wire Y depends upon the input
to the NOT gate (input B):
Finally, we can complete the truth table by considering the inputs
to the OR gate (X and Y):
Dangers of Electricity
• Hazards, Fuses & Earthing
• Hazards of Electricity
• Mains electricity is potentially lethal – potential differences as small
as 50 volts can pose a serious hazard to individuals
• Common hazards include:Damaged Insulation – if someone touches
an exposed piece of wire, they could be subjected to a lethal shock
• Overheating of cables – Passing too much current through too small a
wire (or leaving a long length of wire tightly coiled) can lead to the
wire overheating. This could cause a fire or melt the insulations,
exposing live wires
• Damp conditions – If moisture comes into contact with live wires, the
moisture could conduct electricity either causing a short circuit within
a device (which could cause a fire) or posing an electrocution risk
Fuses
• A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of electricity to
an appliance if the current becomes too large (due to a fault or a
surge)
• Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder which contains a thin metal
wire.
• If the current in the wire becomes too large:
• The wire heats up and melts
• This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the current
Fuses (symbol)
• Fuses come in a variety of sizes (typically 3A, 5A and 13A) – in order
to select the right fuse for the job, you need to know how much
current an appliance needs
• If you know the power of the appliance (along with mains voltage),
the current can be calculated using the equation:
Fuses
• The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than the
current needed by the appliance, without being too high – always
choose the next size up
• Example:
• Suppose an appliance uses 3.1 amps
• A 3 amp use would be too small – the fuse would blow as soon as the
appliance was switched on
• A 13 amp fuse would be too large – it would allow an extra 10 amps to pass
through the appliance before it finally blew
• A 5 amp fuse would be an appropriate choice, as it is the next size up
Circuit breakers
• Circuit breakers act as resettable fuse
• These are automatically operated electrical switches that protect
electrical circuits from overloading or short circuiting.
• They detect faults and then stop the flow of electricity.
• Small circuit breakers protect individual household appliances,
whereas larger ones can protect high voltage circuits supplying
electricity to entire cities.
Earthing
• Many electrical appliances have metal cases
• This poses a potential safety hazard:
• If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with the case, the case
would become electrified and anyone who touched in would risk
electrocution
• The earth wire is an additional safety wire that can reduce this risk
A diagram showing the three wires going to a
mains powered appliance: live, neutral and earth
• If this happens:
• The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the earth
• This causes a surge of current in the earth wire and hence also in the live
wire
• The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and break
• This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance, making it safe
Electromagnetic Effect
Electromagnetic Induction
Inducing an EMF in a Conductor
• When a conductor (such as a metal wire) is moved through a
magnetic field, it cuts through the field lines, inducing an EMF in the
wire

As the wire moves downwards, it cuts through field lines,

inducing an EMF in the wire
• A similar effect occurs if a magnet is pushed into, or taken out of a
coil:
• As the magnet moved through the coil, the field lines cut through the turns
on the coil
• This induces an emf in the coil
• More generally, whenever the magnetic field passing through a loop of wire
changes, an EMF is induced

When the magnet enters the coil, the field lines cut through
the turns, inducing an EMF
The right hand grip rule
Lenz law
• Lenz’s Law states that the induced e.m.f. will be directed such that the
current which it causes to flow opposes the change that is producing
it.
• A bar magnet with the North pole closer to a coil of wires is moved
towards the coil. The current induced will be such that a North pole is
created on the side of the coil that the magnet is approaching. This
“created” north pole repels the approaching N pole of the magnet.
• If such a magnet as above is moved away from the coil, the current
induced in the coil will be such that a South pole is created on the side
the North pole of the magnet is leaving. This “created” south pole
attracts the North pole of the magnet.
Lenz’s Law
Factors Affecting EM Induction
• The size of the induced EMF is proportional to the rate at which the
field lines are cut (Faraday’s law of em induction):
• If the field lines are cut at a faster rate, the EMF will increase
• This can be achieved by:
• Moving the wire (or magnet) faster
• Using a stronger magnet (increasing the number of field lines)
• Adding more turns to a coil (assuming a coil is being used, and not just a
wire)
The Right-Hand Rule
• When moving a wire through a magnetic field, the direction of the
induced EMF can be worked out by using the Right-Hand Dynamo
rule:
The Right-Hand Dynamo rule can be used
to deduce the direction of the induced EMF
RHR
• To use the rule:
• Start by pointing the first finger (on your right hand) in the direction of the field
(First Finger Field)
• Next, rotate your hand so that the thumb point in the direction that the wire is moving in
(ThuMb Motion)
• Your Second finger will now be pointing in the direction of the current (or, strictly
speaking, the EMF)
(SeCond Current)
• The direction of the induced EMF always opposes the change that produces it
• This means that any magnetic field created by the EMF will act so that it tried to
stop the wire or magnet from moving
A.C. & D.C.
• An alternating current (a.c.) is one that continuously changes its
direction, going back and forth around a circuit
• A direct current (d.c.) is one that is steady, constantly going the
same way around a circuit, from positive to negative
Two graphs showing the variation of current with
time for alternating current and direct current
Sources of ac and dc
• Electric cells (batteries) produce direct current (d.c.)
• Mains electricity is an alternating current
A.C. Generator
• A generator looks very similar to a motor, but instead of connecting it
to a power supply, the coil is spun by some mechanical process which
then produces electricity
Generator principle When a coil is spun in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced
between the ends of the coil
Generator principle
• As the coil rotates, it cuts through the field lines
• This induces an EMF between the end of the coil
(which could then create a current)
• The size of this EMF could be increased by:
• Turning the coil faster
• Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
• Adding more turns to the coil
• Slip rings, attached to the ends of the coil, transfer the current to
metal brushes whilst allowing the coil to rotate freely
The Output

• The A.C. generator creates an alternating current, varying in size and

direction as the coil rotates.
• The induced EMF is maximum when the coil is horizontal, as in this
position it cuts through the field at the fastest rate
• The EMF is zero when the coil is vertical, as in this position it will not
be cutting through field lines
Diagram showing how the current varies
with the position of the coil
Transformers
What is a Transformer?
• A transformer is an electrical device that can be used to increase (step
up) or decrease (step down) the voltage of an alternating current
• (Transformers only work with a.c.)
A transformer consists of two coils of wire
wrapped around a soft iron core
Step up and step down
• A step-up transformer increases the voltage of a power source
• A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on
the primary coil
• A step-down transformer decreases the voltage of a power source
• A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than
on the primary coil
How a Transformer Works
• When an alternating current is supplied to the primary coil, a
changing magnetic field is produced by the primary coil
• This field passes through the soft iron core and through the secondary
coil
• The changing field in the secondary coil induces an EMF
• This EMF is also alternating and has the same frequency as the
original current
The Transformer Equation
• The output voltage of a transformer depends on the number of turns
on each of the coils as well as the input voltage:

(The ratio of the voltages is equal to the ratio of the number of

turns
Power
• Although transformers can increase the voltage of a power source,
due to the law of conservation of energy, they cannot increase the
power output
(Increasing the voltage decreases the current, and vice-versa)
Efficiency
• If a transformer if 100% efficient:

(Where IP and IS are the currents in the primary and secondary

coils)

•Hence, if the voltage is increased by some factor, the current must decrease by the same factor
Losses
• Practical transformers are not 100% efficient (mostly 99% efficient).
• This is due to losses in the coils and iron core
• Resistance of windings – the low resistance copper wire used for the windings
still has resistance and thereby contribute to heat loss. Thick copper cables are
used to reduce heat loss by resistance.
• Flux leakage – the flux produced by the primary coil may not be all linked to the
secondary coil if the design of the core is bad.
• Eddy currents – the changing magnetic field not only induces currents in the
secondary coil but also currents in the iron core itself. These currents flow in little
circles in the iron core and are called eddy currents. The eddy currents cause heat
loss. The heat loss, however, can be reduced by having the core laminated.(thin
sheets of soft iron insulated from one another).
Practical transformer design types
Transmitting Electricity
High-Voltage Transmission
• When electricity is transmitted along overhead cables, it is done at
high voltages
• A step-up transformer is used to raise the potential difference
(voltage) before transmissions
• A step-down transformer is then used to step the potential difference
back down to normal levels when it reaches its destination
How High Voltage Reduces Power Loss
• When electricity is transmitted over large distances, the current in the
wires heats them, resulting in energy loss
• By raising the voltage at which the electricity is transmitted at, the
same amount of power (energy per second) can be transmitted using
a much smaller current ()
• This results in less heat being produced in the wire and hence less
energy loss
The Magnetic Effect of Current
 The Field around a Wire
• When there is a current in a wire, a magnetic field is created around
the wire

Diagram showing the magnetic fields around a current-

The right hand grip rule
• The magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the wire
• The direction of the field is given by the right-hand grip rule:

When the thumb is pointing in the direction of the current,

fingers will curl in the direction of the field
Magnetic Field Strength & Direction

• The direction of a magnetic field is defined as being:

• The direction of the force on the north pole of a magnet placed at that point
• The strength and direction of the field depend on the size and direction of
the current:
• If the current is increased, the field will get stronger
• If the direction of the current is changed, the direction of the field will change
• The strength of the magnetic field is related to the distance between the
field lines:
As the field lines spread out, the field gets weaker
• The field lines around a wire get further apart the further they are from
the wire
The Field around a Coil
• When a wire is looped into a coil, the magnetic field lines circle
around each part of the coil, passing through the centre of it
• Diagram showing the magnetic field around a flat circular coil
Magnetic field around a solenoid
• A solenoid is a long coil
• The magnetic field around a solenoid look the same as the magnetic
field around a bar magnet:
Magnetic field around a solenoid
The magnetic field around a solenoid (a long coil) is identical to the magnetic field of a bar magnet

•One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side behaves like the south pole
Strength & Direction within a Solenoid

• Inside the solenoid the field lines straighten up and are very close
together – they form a strong uniform field
Solenoid Applications
• A solenoid can be used as an electromagnet by adding a soft iron core
(This increases the strength of the magnetic field significantly)
• Electromagnets are used in a wide variety of applications including:
• Door bells
• Electronic door locks
• An electromagnet is also used in a relay:
When a current passes through the coil, it attracts the switch, closing it which allows a
current in the right-hand part of the circuit
Force on a Current Carrying Conductor
The Motor Effect
• When a current passes through a wire in a magnetic field, a force is
exerted on the wire
Diagram showing the force acting on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field
The Motor Effect
• The direction of this force depends on:
• The direction of the field
• The direction of the current
• Reversing either of the above will reverse the direction of the force
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
• The force is always directed at 90 degrees to both the field and the
current
• The direction of the force on a current-carrying wire can be worked
out by using the left-hand rule:
The LHR
The left-hand rule can help you figure out the direction of the force on a current-carrying wire
The LHR
The LHR
• Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the
(magnetic) Field
• Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond
finger points in the direction of the Current
• The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the
force)
Force on a Charged Particle
How a Magnetic Field Deflects a Charged
Particle
• When a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, the field can
exert a force on the particle, deflecting it
• This happens because the moving charge forms a current

When a charged particle (such as an electron) enters a magnetic field, it is deflected by the field
Force on a Charge
• The force is always at 90 degrees to both the direction of travel and the
magnetic field lines, and can be worked out by using the left-hand rule
• However, if the particle has a negative charge (such as an electron), then the
second finger (the current) must point in the opposite direction to the direction of
travel
• The deflection of charged particles can be demonstrated either by using a
cathode ray tube and a pair of magnets, or by passing a collimated beam of
beta particles (high energy electrons) between the poles of a horseshoe
magnet
• (Note: A cathode ray tube fires electrons at high speed towards a target.
Old TV sets contained cathode ray tubes, but you must be careful using
these, as holding a magnet to the screen can permanently affect the image)
D.C. Motor
Simple D.C. Motor
• The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil in a uniform magnetic field:
D. C Motor
• When there is a current in the coil, the magnets exert a turning effect
on the coil, causing it to rotate
• The force supplied by a motor can be increased by:
• Increasing the current in the coil
• Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
• Adding more turns to the coil
How a Simple Motor Works
• When a current passes through the coil:
• The current creates a magnetic field around the coil,
• which interacts with the field of the magnets,
• exerting a force on the coil,
• in accordance with the left-hand rule
• This pushes one side of the coil up and the other side down, causing it to spin
• The commutator:
• Reverses the direction of the current in the coil every half turn
• This reverses the direction of the forces, which keeps the coil spinning
Atomic Physics
The Structure of the Atom
• Atoms consist of small dense positively charged nuclei, surrounded by
negatively charged electrons

An atom: a small positive nucleus, surrounded by negative electrons

(Note: the atom is around 100,000 times larger than the nucleus!)
Alpha Particle Scattering
• Evidence for the structure of the atom comes from the study of α-
particle scattering
• When α-particles are fired at thin gold foil, most of them go straight
through but a very small number bounce straight back
• When α-particles are fired at thin pieces of gold foil:The majority of
them go straight through (A)
This happens because the atom is mainly empty space
• Some are deflected through small angles (B)
This happens because the positive α-particles are repelled by the
positive nucleus
• A very small number are deflected straight back (C)
This is because the nucleus is extremely small
Nucleus: Protons & Neutrons
• Atoms are made up of three different particles:

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom

The properties of each of these particles is
shown in the table below:
• The atom shown in the above diagram can also be represented using
an atomic symbol:

Atomic symbols, like the one above, describe the constituents of nuclei
• The top number is called the nucleon number, A, and is equal to the total number of particles
(protons and neutrons) in the nucleus
• The lower number is called the proton number, Z, and is equal to the total number of protons in
the nucleus
• (Note: Chemists refer to the nucleon number as the mass number, and the proton number as
the atomic number)
• When given an atomic symbol, you can figure out the total number of protons, neutrons and
electrons in the atom:
• Protons: The number of protons is equal to the proton number
• Electrons: Atoms are neutral, and so in a neutral atom the number of negative electrons must be equal to the
number of positive protons
• Neutrons: The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the proton number from the nucleon number
• The term nucleon is used to mean a particle in the nucleus – ie. either a proton or a neutron
• The term nuclide is used to refer to a nucleus with a specific combination of protons and neutrons
Isotopes
• Although all atoms of the same element always have the same
number of protons (and hence electrons), the number of neutrons
can vary:
The three atoms shown below are all forms of hydrogen,
but they each have different numbers of neutrons
• The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect the chemical
properties of an atom, only its mass. Such atoms are called isotopes:
Isotopes are atoms (of the same element) that have equal numbers
of protons but different numbers of neutrons
Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Fission
• Usually large unstable nuclei break up gradually by the process of
radioactive decay, but a small number (including Uranium-235, a
naturally occurring isotope of Uranium) can break up in one big go – a
process known as nuclear fission
• In order to undergo nuclear fission, a nucleus usually requires some
energy which can be given by hitting the nucleus with a neutron
(Neutrons are used because they are chargeless and so are not
repelled by the positive charge of the nucleus)
Nuclear fission: A Uranium-235 nucleus is struck by a
neutron, breaking it into two smaller daughter nuclei and 2
or 3 neutrons
Nuclear Fission contd.
• When this happens, the original nucleus breaks apart into two
smaller ‘daughter’ nuclei, along with two or three neutrons
• These fission products carry away the energy released in the form of
kinetic energy
•
Nuclear Fusion
• Nuclear fusion involves taking small nuclei (such as hydrogen) and
colliding them together at high speed to form larger nuclei
• Fusion is the process in which small nuclei, such as hydrogen, are
fused together to form larger nuclei
• This process also releases energy
Nuclear Equations
• Nuclear reactions, such as fission and fusion, can be represented
using nuclear equations (which are similar to chemical equations in
Chemistry)
For example:

•The above equation represents a fission reaction in which a Uranium nucleus is hit with a neutron and splits into
two smaller nuclei – a Strontium nucleus and a Xenon nucleus, releasing two neutrons in the process
• In the above reaction:
The sum of top (nucleon) numbers on the left-hand side equals the
sum of top number on the right-hand side:
• 235 + 1 = 236 = 90 + 144 + 2 x 1
• The same is true for the lower (proton) numbers:
• 92 + 0 = 92 = 38 + 54 + 2 x 0
• By balancing equations in this way, you can determine, for example,
the number of neutrons emitted by a process like this
Example:

•In the above example, balancing the numbers on the top shows that 3 neutrons must be released in the
reaction (i.e. N = 3)
Radioactivity
Detection of Radioactivity: Background
Radiation
Background Radiation
• Background radiation is the radiation that is always present around us
in the environment
Background Radiation
• Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in
the environment
• Although most background radiation is natural, a small amount of it
comes from artificial sources, such as medical procedures (including
X-rays)
(Radiation from Nuclear Power come to less than 0.1% of the total)
• Levels of background radiation can vary significantly from place to
place
Detecting Radiation
• When radiation passes close to an atom, it knocks out electrons,
ionising the atom
• Radiation detectors work by detecting the presence of these ions or
the chemical changes that they produce
• Examples of radiation detectors include:
• Photographic film (often used in badges)
• Geiger-Muller (GM) tubes
• Ionisation chambers
• Scintillation counters
• Spark counters
GM Tube and Counter
Characteristics of Radiation
The Nature of Decay
• Radiation consists of high energy particles (or waves) emitted from
the nucleus of an unstable atom

Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles –

radiation
Nature of Decay
• There are three (main) types of radiation: alpha (α) particles, beta
(β−) particles, or gamma (γ) rays
• Radiation is emitted randomly
This means that, although we understand why some nuclei emit
radiation, it is impossible to predict exactly when a nucleus will emit
radiation
The Properties of Radiation
• Alpha (α) particles are high energy particles made up of 2 protons and
2 neutrons (the same as a helium nucleus).
They are usually emitted from nuclei that are too large
• Beta (β−) particles are high energy electrons emitted from the nucleus
(even though the nucleus does not normally contain any electrons)
They are usually emitted by nuclei that have too many neutrons
• Gamma (γ) rays are high energy electromagnetic waves
They are emitted by nuclei that need to lose some energy
• If these particles hit other atoms, they can knock out
electrons, ionising the atom
Ionization

When radiation passes close to atoms, it can knock out

electrons, ionising the atom
Properties of Radiation
• Ionisation can cause chemical changes in materials, and can damage
or kill living cells
• The nature and properties of the different types of radiation are
summarised in the table below
•Note that when you go down the table, the range and penetration increase, but the ionisation
decreases
Diagram showing the penetrative abilities of alpha (α)
particles, beta (β−) particles, and gamma (γ) rays. Note how
some of the gamma rays are able to penetrate the lead
Deflection in Electric & Magnetic Fields
• Because of their charges, alpha and beta particles can be deflected by
electric and magnetic fields
Alpha and Beta particles can be deflected by
electric fields
• Because they have opposite charges, alpha and beta particles are
deflected in opposite directions
• Beta is deflected by more than alpha, because beta particles have a
much smaller mass
• Gamma is not deflected because gamma rays have no charge
Alpha and Beta particles can also be
deflected by magnetic fields
Ionisation
• Alpha is by far the most ionising form of radiation
• Alpha particles leave a dense trail of ions behind them, affecting virtually every atom they meet
• Because of this they quickly lose their energy and so have a short range
• Their short range makes them relatively harmless if handled carefully, but they have the
potential to be extremely dangerous if the alpha emitter enters the body
• Beta particles are moderately ionising
• The particles create a less dense trail of ions than alpha, and consequently have a longer range
• They tend to be more dangerous than alpha because they are able to travel further and
penetrate the skin, and yet are still ionising enough to cause significant damage
• Gamma is the least ionising form of radiation (although it is still dangerous)
• Because Gamma rays don’t produce as many ions as alpha or beta, they are more penetrating
and have a greater range
• This can make them hazardous in large amounts
Applications of Radioactivity
• Radioactivity has a large number of uses in both medicine and
industry, some of which are listed below
Measuring the thickness of materials:
Beta particles can be used to measure the thickness of thin
materials such as paper, cardboard or aluminium foil
• As a material moves above a beta source, the particles that are able to penetrate it can
be monitored using a detector
• If the material gets thicker more particles will be absorbed, meaning that less will get
through
• If the material gets thinner the opposite happens
• This allows the machine to make adjustments to keep the thickness of the material
constant
• Note: Devices like this use beta radiation because it will be partially absorbed by the
material
If alpha particles were used all of them would be absorbed and none would get through
If gamma were used almost all of it would get through and the detector would not be
able to sense any difference if the thickness were to change
Tracers
• Tracers are radioactive isotopes that can be added to some fluid so that the
flow of that fluid can be monitored
• Tracers have numerous uses in both medicine and industry:
• In medicine tracers can be added to the blood to check blood flow around the body
and search for blockages (blood clots)
• In industry tracers may be added into an oil pipeline in order to check for any leaks
• In all cases:
• The amount used is kept to a minimum to reduce people’s exposure to radiation
• Isotopes are chosen that have short half-lives of around a few hours: long enough to
carry out the procedure, but not so long that they cause long-term harm
• Gamma radiation is used as it is highly penetrating (you can detect it) and low ionising
(minimising harm)
Radiotherapy
• Radiotherapy is the name given to the treatment of cancer using radiation
(Chemotherapy is treatment using chemicals)
• Although radiation can cause cancer, it is also highly effective at treating it
• Radiation can kill living cells. Some cells, such as bacteria and cancer cells,
are more susceptible to radiation than others
• Beams of gamma rays are directed at the cancerous tumour
(Gamma rays are used because they are able to penetrate the body,
reaching the tumour)
• The beams are moved around to minimise harm to healthy tissue whilst
still being aimed at the tumour
Sterilisation
• Medical instruments are sterilised by exposing them to gamma rays
• The gamma rays kill bacteria on the instruments and destroy viruses
• Gamma rays are far more effective at killing bacteria than either
boiling water or chemical treatment and are able to penetrate the
instruments reaching areas that may otherwise not be properly
sterilised
Radioactive Decay
• Some isotopes are unstable – usually because of their large size or
because the number of protons and neutrons within them are out of
balance
• As a result, these isotopes will decay – emitting little chunks
(radiation) in order to reduce their size or bring them back into
balance
• When an isotope emits radiation, the constitution of its nucleus (the
number of protons and neutron) changes
• As a result, the isotope will change into a different element
Alpha Emission
• An alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
(It is emitted from large unstable nuclei)
• When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus:
• The nucleus loses 2 protons:
The proton (atomic) number decreases by 2
• The nucleus loses 4 particles (nucleons) in total:
The nucleon (mass) number decreases by 4
Equation for alpha emission:
Nuclear Equation
• Nuclear equations, just like chemical equations, balance:
• The sum of the upper (mass) numbers on the left of each equation
should equal the sum on the right
• The sum of the lower (atomic) numbers should also balance
Beta Emission
• A beta particle is a high energy electron emitted from the nucleus
• It is emitted when a neutron in the nucleus suddenly changes into a
proton – an electron is created in order to balance the positive charge
of the proton
(Note: The electron is created at the moment of decay – it is not
present in the neutron beforehand)
• When a beta particle is emitted from a nucleus:
• The number of protons in the nucleus increases by 1:
The proton (atomic) number increases by 1
• The total number of particles in the nucleus remains the same
The nucleon (mass) number doesn’t change
Equation for beta emission:

•Note that the beta particle is given an atomic number of -1 in the above examples
This is because the atomic number is being used to measure charge in this case:
Protons, being positive particles, have positive atomic numbers
Electrons, being negative, have a negative number

A beta particle is emitted when a

neutron turns into a proton,
emitting an electron
Half-Life
• As an isotope decays, the number of nuclei of that isotope that
remain will decrease
• As a consequence of this, the activity of that isotope will also
decrease over time
• The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for the activity of that
isotope (or the number of original nuclei) to drop to half of its initial
value
• Every time one half-life passes, the activity (and the number of nuclei)
will fall by half
Graph showing the change in activity of an isotope
over time and its radioactive half-life
Half-life
• Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from
a fraction of a second to billions of years in length
• As mentioned above, every time one half-life passes the activity (and
number of nuclei remaining) halves
However, the activity (and number of nuclei) will never quite drop to
zero
Measuring Half-Life
• To find the half-life of an isotope:
• If given some data showing how the activity (or number of nuclei)
changes over time:
• Plot a graph of this data (with time on the x-axis)
• Add a smooth best fit curve (the curve should get closer to, but never quite
reach, the x-axis)
• Look at the original activity (where the line crosses the y-axis) and halve it
• Go across from the halved value (on the y-axis) to the best fit curve, and then
straight down to the x-axis
(It’s a good idea to draw lines showing this on your graph)
• The point where you reach the x-axis should be the half-life
Use graphs like the one above to work out the half-life of an
isotope
Measuring Half-Life
• IF you are given just two pieces of data (along with a time) – say the
initial and final activity of an isotope:
• Start by figuring out how many times you have to halve the initial
activity to get to the final activity
• This number will be the number of half-lives that have passed
• Divide the time by the number of half-lives to figure out the value of
one half-life
Example:
• An isotope has an initial activity of 120 Bq.
6 days later it’s activity is 15 Bg.
• The number of half-lives that have passed is:
• 120/2 = 60
• 60/2 = 30
• 30/2 = 15
• We had to halve 120 three times to get to 15, and so three half-lives have
passed.
• Therefore each half-life must be:
• 6 days/3 = 2 days
Background Radiation
• Background radiation is radiation that is always present in the
environment around us
• As a consequence, whenever an experiment involving radiation is
carried out, some of the radiation that is detected will be background
radiation
• When carrying out experiments to measure half-life, the presence of
background radiation must be taken into account
When measuring radioactive emissions,
some of the detected radiation will be
background
When measuring radioactive emissions, some of the
detected radiation will be background
• To do this you must:Start by measuring background radiation (with no
sources present) – this is called your background count
• Then carry out your experiment
• Subtract the background count from each of your readings, in order
to give a corrected count
• The corrected count is your best estimate of the radiation emitted
from the source, and should be used to measure its half-life
Safety Precautions
The Dangers
• When radiation passes close to atoms the radiation can knock out
electrons, ionising the atom
• Ionisation can cause chemical changes in materials
• If these chemical changes occur in living cells it can damage the cell
and:
• Cause mutations
• Cause a cell to become cancerous
• Kill the cell
Safety

Radioactivity warning sign

Safety
• The risks associated with handling radioactive sources can be
minimised by following a few simple procedures:
• Store the sources in lead-lined boxes and keep at a distance from people
• Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and return them to their
boxes as soon as you have finished using them
• During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from the sources as
feasible. When handling the sources do so at arm’s length, using a pair of
tongs
• (Note: When using tongs, gloves and safety specs are usually
unnecessary when handling radioactive materials, unless there is a
risk of the material leaking on to things)