Soil compressibility and

consolidation

Dr Majid Sedighi
School of Engineering
Soil Compression and Settlement
Soil can deform due to the applied load…
The compression is caused by:
1) relocations of soil particles.
2) expulsion of water or air from the void spaces.
3) deformation of deformable particles.

Sand particle smooth” fracture surface of Fabric of undisturbed clay

quartz
2
Soil Compression and Settlement
Three categories of soil settlement caused by loads:
 Immediate settlement (normally considered to be
an elastic deformation)
…which is caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and of
moist and saturated soils without any change in the moisture
content.
 Primary consolidation settlement
…which is the result of a volume change in saturated cohesive
soils because of expulsion of the water that occupies the void
spaces.
 Secondary consolidation settlement
…which is observed in saturated cohesive soils and is the result
of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It is an additional form of
compression that occurs at constant effective stress.
3
Soil Compression and Settlement

Time
Settlement

Secondary
Primary Consolidation Consolidation

Immediate
settlement
Soil Compression and Settlement

1) Immediate settlement (elastic settlement)

2) Primary consolidation settlement
3) Secondary consolidation settlement

5
Shallow Foundation : Settlement
1) Magnitude of settlement
2) Rate of settlement
3) Compatibility with acceptable range of structure/building

Coarse-grained soils • Magnitude of settlement

• Immediate settlements
• Magnitude of settlement
Fine-grained soils • Rate of settlement – how long
does it take

• In soft, normally to lightly over-consolidated clays, 80% to 90% of

settlement is due to primary consolidation.
• In stiff, over-consolidated clays (OCR > 4), approximately 50% of
settlement can be due to immediate settlement.
6
Immediate settlement
Immediate Settlement
Immediate settlement occurs directly after the application of a load
without a change in the moisture content of the soil.

The magnitude of immediate settlement can depend on:

1) The flexibility of the loading area
2) The type of soil.

Immediate settlement profile beneath

a perfectly flexible load area

Clay Sand 8
Immediate Settlement

Immediate settlement profile beneath

a perfectly rigid foundation.

Clay Sand

How do we know that a load area is

flexible or rigid? 9
 Stress-strain of elastic-isotropic material
 If soils were linear-elastic, isotropic, and with infinite strength, 2 elastic
constants (E and ν) would completely define their stress-strain curves;
 One unconfined compression/tension test would be needed to compute 2
elastic constants, ie: Young’s modulus E, and Poisson’s ratio ν


a

Young’s modulus
r
Poisson’s ratio
r
Hooke’s law   E a  
a
 Calculation of Immediate Settlement

𝑞𝐵
𝑠= ( 1 −𝜐 ) 𝐼 𝑠
2
𝐸
• is the immediate settlement.
• is the uniform pressure on the surface of a semi-infinite,
homogenous and isotropic mass.
• is the lesser dimension of a rectangular area or the diameter of
circular area of loading.
• is the Young’s modules of the soil.
• is the Poisson’s ratio of the soil.
• is the influence factor depending on the shape of the loaded area.

11
Clay compressibility
Consolidation test

Porous plate

Oedometer setup
Clay sample

Porous plate

13
Phase diagram of oedometer test

𝑊𝑠
𝐻 𝑠=
𝐴 𝐺𝑠 𝛾 𝑤

= dry weight of the soil

= Area of specimen
= specific gravity of soil solids
=unit weight of water

14
Phase diagram of oedometer test
ΔH Δe1
e0
Water e1

H
H1
Hs 𝑊𝑠
Solids 𝐻 𝑠=
𝐴 𝐺𝑠 𝛾 𝑤

Initial void ratio:

Change of void ratio:

= dry weight of the soil
New void ratio: = Area of specimen
= specific gravity of soil solids
=unit weight of water
15
 e versus log p – oedometer results
a
b
Step 1) loading
Void ratio, e

d
c Step 3) Re-loading
f
Step 2) Un-loading
g

Effective stress, σ’ (log scale)

16
 e versus log p

a
Soil has experienced the loading in past
b

Soil has experienced the loading d Soil has NOT experienced the
in past loading in past
c
Void ratio, e

f Soil has NOT experienced

the loading in past

Effective pressure, σ’ (log scale)

17
Consolidation behaviour
a
Over consolidated
b

d Normally consolidated

Over consolidated c
Void ratio, e

f Normally consolidated

Effective pressure, σ’ (log scale)

What does this mean from geo-morphological

point of view ? 18
 Normally Consolidated Over Consolidated Clays
Clays (NCC) (OCC)

(Past) (Present) (Past) (Present)

Soil which is subjected to the effective Effective stress in the present condition
stress in the present condition is is less than the effective stress of the
greater than the effective stress of the past condition.
past condition.
These soils are more compressible and These soils are less compressible and
show large settlements. show small settlements.

19
Preconsolidation pressure

Preconsolidation pressure

𝜎 ′𝑐
𝑂𝐶𝑅 =
Void ratio, e

𝜎′

Current stress state

𝜎 ′𝑐
Pressure, σ’ (log scale)

Preconsolidation pressure : The maximum past effective

overburden pressure to which a soil has been subjected to.
20
Consolidation
Normally consolidated clay
Normally consolidated, whose present effective
overburden pressure is the maximum
pressure that the soil was subjected to in the past.
𝜎 ′ 𝑐 =𝜎 ′ → 𝑂𝐶𝑅=1
Overconsolidated clay
whose present effective overburden pressure is less
than that which the soil experienced in the past (i.e. less
than the preconsolidation pressure).

𝑂𝐶𝑅>1
21
 Preconsolidation pressure
Casagrande (1936) suggested a simple graphic construction to
determine the pre-
consolidation pressure from the laboratory e–log σ’ plot

1. By visual observation, establish point a,

at which the e–log s plot has a minimum
radius of curvature.
a f b
α 2. Draw a horizontal line ab.
g 3.Draw the line ac tangent at a.
Void ratio, e

α d 4. Draw the line ad, which is the bisector

of the angle bac.
c
5. Project the straight-line portion gh of
the e–logs plot back to intersectline ad at
f.
h
The abscissa of point f is the
preconsolidation pressure, .
𝜎 ′𝑐
Pressure, σ’ (log scale) 22
Example

The following compression readings were obtained in an oedometer test

on a specimen of saturated clay (Gs = 2.73). The initial thickness of the
specimen was 19.0 mm.
At the end of the test the water content was 19.8%.

Pressure (kPa) 0 54 107 214 429 858 1716 3432 0

Dial gauge after 5 4.747 4.493 4.108 3.449 2.608 1.676 0.737 1.480
24 h (mm) of
each loading
step

Plot the e–log σ′ curve.

Determine the preconsolidation pressure.
23
Example - Solution
ΔH Δe1
e0
Water e1

H
H1
Hs 𝑊𝑠
Solids 𝐻 𝑠=
𝐴 𝐺𝑠 𝛾 𝑤
= dry weight of the soil
= Area of specimen
= specific gravity of soil solids
=unit weight of water

Void ratio at the end of test = e1 = w1Gs =0.198 × 2.73 = 0.541

24
Example - Solution
ΔH Δe
e0
Water e1

H
H1
Hs 𝑊𝑠
Solids 𝐻 𝑠=
𝐴 𝐺𝑠 𝛾 𝑤

∆ 𝑉 =𝑉 0 − 𝑉 1 =𝐻𝐴 − ( 𝐻 − ∆ 𝐻 ) 𝐴=∆ 𝐻𝐴

∆ 𝑉 =∆ 𝐻𝐴= ∆ 𝑉 𝑣
∆𝑉𝑣 ∆𝑉
∆ 𝑒= = 1 + 𝑒0
𝑉𝑠 ∆ 𝑒=𝑉 𝑠 ∆ 𝐻
𝑉𝐴𝑣𝐻00 𝐻 0
𝑒 0 + 1 =𝑉 𝑠 = +1
𝑉 1+𝑒
𝑠 0

25
Example - Solution
Void ratio at the end of test = e1 = w1Gs =0.198 × 2.73 = 0.541

Void ratio at the start of test = e0 = e1 + Δe

i.e.

= 0.541 + 0.350 = 0.891

26
Example - Solution
i.e. =0.0996 H, and can be used to obtain the void ratio at the end
of each increment period.

Pressure (kPa) H (mm) e

0 0 0 0.891
54 0.253 0.025 0.866
107 0.507 0.050 0.841
214 0.892 0.089 0.802
429 1.551 0.154 0.737
858 2.392 0.238 0.653
1716 3.324 0.331 0.560
3432 4.263 0.424 0.467
0 3.520 0.350 0.541
27
Example - Solution

0.90

0.80 a f b

d
0.70 c
e

0.60

0.50

325 kPa
0.40
10 100 1000 10000
28
(kP)

Using Casagrande’s construction, the value of the preconsolidation pressure is

325 kPa.
 Consolidation settlement

a
b

1 + 𝑒0
∆ 𝑒= ∆𝐻
𝐻0
Void ratio, e

d
c

Effective stress, σ’ (log scale)

29
Consolidation: Settlement

𝐶𝑠 Virgin consolidation line (VCL)

1
Void ratio

𝐶𝑐
1

𝐶𝑠
1
log σ ′ ❑

= Compression Index
= swell index
30
Settlement – Normally consolidate
clays
1) If the clay is normally consolidated
′ ′
σ 0 + Δ σ❑
𝑒𝑜 Δ 𝑒=𝐶 𝑐 log 10 ′
σ0
Δe 𝑉 𝐶𝐿
( )
′ ′
𝐶𝑐 𝐻 σ0+ Δ σ❑
𝑆= log
1+ 𝑒0 10 σ ′
0

′
σ0 σ ′0 + Δ σ ′❑

31
Settlement – Over consolidated
Clay
2) If the clay is over-consolidated, and remains so by the
end of consolidation )

′ ′
σ 0+ Δ σ❑
i nitial Δ 𝑒=𝐶 𝑠 log 10
𝑒𝑜 ′
σ0
𝑉 𝐶𝐿
( )
Δe ′ ′
𝐶𝑠 𝐻 σ 0+ Δ σ❑
𝑆= log
1+𝑒 0 10 σ ′
0

’ ’
’+

32
Settlement – Over consolidated
Clay
3) If an over-consolidated clay becomes normally
consolidated by the end of consolidation ’)

( ) ( )
′ ′ ′
𝐶𝑠 𝐻 σ𝑐 𝐶𝑐 𝐻 σ0+ Δ σ❑
𝑆= log + log
1+𝑒 0 10
′
σ0 1+𝑒 0 10 σ ′𝑐

i nitial
𝑒𝑜 𝑉 𝐶𝐿

Δe

’ ’ ’+ 33
Consolidation - Settlement

𝐶 𝑐 =0.009( 𝐿𝐿 – 10) Skempton(1944)

[
𝐶 𝑐 =0. 2343
𝐿𝐿(% )
100 ]𝐺𝑠 N agaraj∧Murty ( 1985)

𝐶 𝑠=0. 0463 [
𝐿𝐿(% )
100 ]
𝐺𝑠 N agaraj∧Murty ( 1985)

1 1
𝐶𝑠≅ ¿ 𝐶𝑐
5 10
34
Example 2
A soil profile is shown below. If a uniformly distributed load, is applied at
the ground surface, calculate the settlement of the clay layer caused by
primary consolidation if:
a. The clay is normally consolidated
b. The preconsolidation pressure is 190 kPa
C. The preconsolidation pressure is 170 kPa
kPa

𝑘𝑁
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝛾 𝑠 = 14
𝑚
3 2𝑚
SAND
4𝑚
CLAY
1
C s  Cc
6 , LL=40
4𝑚
SAND
35
Rate of clay consolidation
Rate of consolidation : e-log t

Pre-compression
of the specimen
Void ratio, e

Primary
consolidation

Secondary
consolidation

Time, t (log scale)

37
Clay consolidation
Δσ

Ground

Depth
Sand Clay
Total stress increase Pore water pressure increase Effective stress increase

Δσ ′
Δ σ =0
Δ 𝑢= Δ σ

Depth Depth Depth

(b) At time t=0
38
Clay consolidation
Δσ

Ground

Depth
Sand Clay
Total stress increase Pore water pressure increase Effective stress increase

Δu < Δσ
H Δσ’ > 0

Δσ Δσ Δσ

Depth Depth Depth

(c) At time 0<t<∞
39
Clay consolidation
Δσ

Ground

Depth
Sand Clay
Total stress increase Pore water pressure increase Effective stress increase

Δσ Δu = 0

Depth Depth Depth

(d) At time t = ∞
40
Primary Consolidation

Δ 𝑢=0

41
Consolidation Settlement
𝑃
Valve closed Valve closed

𝑃
Δ 𝑢=
𝐴

Δ 𝑢=0 (b)
(a)

By applying the mechanical stress on a saturated soil layer, the pore

water pressure suddenly increases.
𝑃= 𝑃 𝑠 + 𝑃 𝑤
when the valve is closed (i.e. immediately after applying the load ):
and 42
Consolidation Settlement
𝑃
Valve open
𝑃
Valve open

𝑃
Δ 𝑢<
𝐴 Δ 𝑢=0

(c) (d)

If the valve is opened (drainage starts to happen), the water will flow
outward:
and

After some time, the excess hydrostatic pressure will become zero and
the system will reach a new state of equilibrium
and 43
 Consolidation Settlement
Time

Δ𝑢
Settlement

Δ 𝑢=0

What does control the new equilibrium state?

What does control the rate of the process?
Rate of Consolidation

45
Consolidation - Time
The rate of consolidation
∂𝑣𝑧 𝑧
(𝑣 ¿ ¿ 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ¿
∂𝑧
Δσ
𝑢
h=
γ𝑤
Groundwater
table

𝑑𝑧

2
𝑧

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
Sand Clay

𝑣 𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
46
Consolidation - Time
∂𝑣𝑧
(𝑣 ¿ ¿ 𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 ¿
∂𝑧

𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑥
𝑣 𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 47
Consolidation - Time

𝑉 =v olume of the soil element

𝑣 𝑧 =velocity of flow∈ z direction

∂𝑣𝑧 ∂𝑉
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧=
∂𝑧 ∂𝑡
48
Consolidation - Time
𝑣

Darcy’s Law 𝑣 =𝑘𝑖 Hydraulic

gradient (L/L)

Discharge Hydraulic
velocity (L/T) conductivity (L/T)

∂h 𝑘 ∂𝑢
𝑣 𝑧 =𝑘𝑖=−𝑘 =−
∂𝑧 γ𝑤 ∂ 𝑧
𝑢=excess pore water pressure caused by the increase of stress 49
Consolidation - Time

Darcy’s Law
∂h 𝑘 ∂𝑢
𝑣 𝑧 =𝑘𝑖=−𝑘 =−
∂𝑧 γ𝑤 ∂ 𝑧

𝑢=excess pore water pressure caused by the increase of stress

𝑘 ∂2𝑢 1 ∂𝑉
− =
γ 𝑤 ∂ z2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ∂ 𝑡

50
 Consolidation - Time

𝑘 ∂2𝑢 1 ∂𝑉
− =
γ𝑤 ∂ z2
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ∂ 𝑡

During consolidation, the rate of change in the volume of the soil

element is equal to the rate of change in the volume of voids.

∂ 𝑉 ∂ 𝑉 𝑣 ∂(𝑉 𝑠 + 𝑒 𝑉 𝑠 ) ∂ 𝑉 𝑠 ∂e ∂𝑉𝑠
= = = +𝑉 𝑠 + 𝑒
∂𝑡 ∂𝑡 ∂𝑡 ∂𝑡 ∂t ∂𝑡

51
Consolidation - Time

𝑘 ∂2𝑢 1 ∂𝑉
− =
γ 𝑤 ∂ z2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ∂ 𝑡

∂ 𝑉 ∂ 𝑉 𝑣 ∂(𝑉 𝑠 + 𝑒 𝑉 𝑠 ) ∂ 𝑉 𝑠 ∂e ∂𝑉𝑠
= = = +𝑉 𝑠 + 𝑒
∂𝑡 ∂𝑡 ∂𝑡 ∂𝑡 ∂t ∂𝑡

∂𝑉𝑠
=0
∂𝑡

𝑉 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑉 𝑠= =
1+ 𝑒 𝑜 1+𝑒 𝑜
52
Consolidation - Time

𝑘 ∂2𝑢 1 ∂𝑉
− =
γ 𝑤 ∂ z2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ∂ 𝑡

∂ 𝑉 ∂ 𝑉 𝑣 ∂(𝑉 𝑠 + 𝑒 𝑉 𝑠 ) ∂ 𝑉 𝑠 ∂e ∂𝑉𝑠
= = = +𝑉 𝑠 + 𝑒
∂𝑡 ∂𝑡 ∂𝑡 ∂𝑡 ∂t ∂𝑡

∂ 𝑉 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ∂ e
=
∂𝑡 1+𝑒 𝑜 ∂ t

2
𝑘 ∂ 𝑢 1 ∂e
− =
γ𝑤 ∂ z2
1+ 𝑒 𝑜 ∂ t

53
Consolidation - Time

2
𝑘 ∂ 𝑢 1 ∂e
− =
γ𝑤 ∂ z2
1+ 𝑒 𝑜 ∂ t

∂ e= 𝑎𝑣 ∂ Δ σ )=− 𝑎 𝑣 ∂𝑢
( ′

2
𝑘 ∂ 𝑢 𝑎𝑣 ∂ u ∂u
− 2
=− =− 𝑚𝑣
γ𝑤 ∂ z 1+𝑒 𝑜 ∂ t ∂t
54
Consolidation - Time

𝑘 ∂ 𝑢 2
𝑎𝑣 ∂ u ∂u
− 2
=− =− 𝑚𝑣
γ𝑤 ∂ z 1+𝑒 𝑜 ∂ t ∂t

𝑚𝑣 =𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 =𝑎𝑣 /(1+𝑒 𝑜 )

2
∂u ∂ 𝑢
=𝑐 𝑣 2
∂t ∂z

𝑐 𝑣 = 𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 =𝑘/( γ 𝑤 𝑚 𝑣 )

55
Consolidation - Time
2
∂u ∂ 𝑢
=𝑐 𝑣 2
∂t ∂z
𝑘 𝑘
𝑐 𝑣= =

( )
γ𝑤 𝑚𝑣 𝑎𝑣
γ𝑤
1+ 𝑒0

[ ( )]
𝑧 =0 ,𝑢=0 𝑚=∞
2𝑢 𝑜 𝑀𝑍
𝑢= ∑
2
−𝑀 𝑇𝑣
𝑧 =2 𝐻 𝑑𝑟𝑢=0
, sin 𝑒
𝑚=0 𝑀 𝐻 𝑑𝑟
𝑡 =0 , 𝑢=𝑢𝑜

56
Rate of consolidation 𝑧

Δσ
2
∂u ∂ 𝑢 𝑢
=𝑐 𝑣 2 h=
γ𝑤

∂t ∂z Groundwater
table

𝑧 =0 ,𝑢=0
𝐴
𝑧 =2 𝐻 𝑑𝑟𝑢=0
, Boundary conditions
2
𝑧
𝑡 =0 , 𝑢=𝑢𝑜

Sand Clay

[ ( )]
𝑚=∞
2𝑢 𝑜 𝑀𝑍 𝑚=an interger
𝑢= ∑
2
−𝑀 𝑇𝑣
sin 𝑒 𝑀 =( π / 2 ) (2 𝑚+1)
𝑚=0 𝑀 𝐻 𝑑𝑟 𝑢𝑜 =initial excess pore water pressure

𝑐𝑣 𝑡
Time factor 𝑇 𝑣= 2
𝐻 𝑑𝑟
57
Consolidation - Time
Distinction between the average degree of consolidation
and mid-plane degree of consolidation

Sand
Degree of
0 100 consolidation (%)

Clay
H 𝑑𝑟
Average degree of
consolidation
H
Midplane degree
of consolidation
H 𝑑𝑟

Sand
Depth
58
Drainage boundary
drainage

u𝑜 2 H 𝑑𝑟

drainage
u𝑜 H 𝑑𝑟

One
Dial gauge Load

drainage
u𝑜 H 𝑑𝑟

One

Porous stone Soil specimen Specimen ring

59
Consolidation - Time
𝑚=∞
The average degree of consolidation 𝑈=1 − ∑
2 −𝑀 𝑇
2
𝑒
2
𝑣

𝑚=0 𝑀

60
Consolidation - Time
The average degree of consolidation

61
 Example 2
During the construction of a highway bridge, the average
permanent load on the clay layer is expected to increase by
115 kN/m2.
The average effective overburden pressure at the middle of
the clay layer is 210 kN/m2. Here, H =6 m, Cc =0.28, eo =0.9,
and cv =0.36 m2/month. The clay is normally consolidated.

1) Determine the total primary consolidation settlement of the

bridge.
2) Calculate the primary consolidation after nine months of the
construction of bridge. (assume two-way drainage).
2) Calculate the time required for 90% completion of the total
primary consolidation (assume two-way drainage) 62
How to accelerate
consolidation
Rate of consolidation 𝑧

Δσ
2
∂u ∂ 𝑢 𝑢
=𝑐 𝑣 2 h=
γ𝑤

∂t ∂z Groundwater
table

𝑧 =0 ,𝑢=0
𝐴
𝑧 =2 𝐻 𝑑𝑟𝑢=0
, Boundary conditions
2
𝑧
𝑡 =0 , 𝑢=𝑢𝑜

Sand Clay

[ ( )]
𝑚=∞
2𝑢 𝑜 𝑀𝑍 𝑚=an interger
𝑢= ∑
2
−𝑀 𝑇𝑣
sin 𝑒 𝑀 =( π / 2 ) (2 𝑚+1)
𝑚=0 𝑀 𝐻 𝑑𝑟 𝑢𝑜 =initial excess pore water pressure

𝑐𝑣 𝑡
Time factor 𝑇 𝑣= 2
𝐻 𝑑𝑟
64
Rate of consolidation
0

20
Average degree of consolidation,

40

60

80

100
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9
Time factor,

65
Consolidation - Time
How to reduce the time of consolidation
𝑐𝑣 𝑡
𝑇 𝑣= 2
𝐻 𝑑𝑟

2
𝑇𝑣 𝐻 𝑑𝑟
𝑡=
𝑐𝑣
66
Consolidation - Time
How to reduce the time required for
consolidation:
2
2
𝑇𝑣 𝐻
1
𝑑𝑟
𝑡=
𝑐𝑣 ¿ 𝑘 / (γ 𝑤 𝑚𝑣 )

1) Decreasing the time factor

2) Decreasing the drainage path length
67
Preloading consolidation

68
Preloading consolidation with
Vertical Drains
 Vertical drains are installed under a surcharge load to
accelerate the drainage of impervious soils and thus speed
up consolidation.
 These drains provide a shorter path for the water to flow
through to get away from the soil.

 Consolidation time can be

reduced from years to a
couple of months.

69
Consolidation - Time
How to reduce the time of consolidation
2
𝑇𝑣 𝐻 𝑑𝑟
𝑡=
𝑐𝑣
Time for consolidation is
controlled by the square of the
drainage path length.

1) Sand Drains
2) Prefabricated vertical drains
(PVDs)

70
Impact of surcharge
Excess surcharge load
Surcharge load Time

Time to achieve 90%

Require
with excess surcharge consolid
Time to achieve 90% ation
with standard surcharge
(Settlem
ent x U)
90%
Surcharge

Preload

U%

71
Impact of surcharge
Surcharge per unit area

Δσ (𝑝 )
Time
𝑡 2 𝑡1
Time

𝑆( 𝑝 )
𝑆(𝑝+ 𝑓 )

Settlement

Saving time 72
Impact of surcharge

0
Average degree of consolidation, U(%)

𝑈= 𝑓 ( 𝑇𝑣)
20

Saving time
40

60 U=70%

80 U=90%

100
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9
Time factor,

p+f p

73
 Impact of surcharge
𝑡 2
𝑡1
Time
𝑆( 𝑝 ) 𝑆( 𝑝𝑆)
𝑈= (𝑝+ 𝑓 )
𝑆( 𝑝 + 𝑓 )
Settlement

𝑈=
𝑙𝑜𝑔
[ σ ′ 𝑜 + Δ σ (𝑝 )
σ ′𝑜 ] =
[
𝑙𝑜𝑔 1+
Δ σ ( 𝑝)
σ ′𝑜 ] 𝑈= 𝑓 ( 𝑇𝑣)
𝑙𝑜𝑔
[ σ ′ 𝑜 + Δ σ (𝑝 ) + Δ σ ( 𝑓 )
σ ′𝑜 ] {
𝑙𝑜𝑔 1+
Δ σ (𝑝)
σ ′𝑜 [ 1+
Δ σ (𝑓 )
Δ σ (𝑝 ) ]}
2
𝑇𝑣 𝐻
[ ( )]
𝑚=∞
2𝑢 𝑜 𝑀𝑍 𝑑𝑟
𝑢= ∑ 𝑡 2=
2
−𝑀 𝑇𝑣
sin 𝑒
𝑚=0 𝑀 𝐻 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑣
74
 Example 3 (based on Example 2)

During the construction of a highway bridge, the average permanent

load on the clay layer is expected to increase by about 115 kN/m2.

The average effective overburden pressure at the middle of the clay

layer is 210 kN/m2. Here, H =6 m, Cc =0.28, eo =0.9, and cv =0.36
m2/month. The clay is normally consolidated.

What is the surcharge needed to eliminate by

preloading (without any vertical drains) the entire
primary consolidation settlement in nine months?

75
Preloading consolidation with
vertical drains
Without vertical drains With vertical Drains

Surcharge Surcharge

Drain
Preload Blanket Preload
(Sand)

Long Drainage Paths Short Drainage Paths

76
Preloading consolidation +
Vertical Drains
Time

Settlement curve
with drains
Settlement curve
without drains

90%

U%

77
 Preloading consolidation
 Simply place a surcharge fill on top of the soil
 Once sufficient consolidation has taken place, the fill can
be removed and construction takes place. It can also
remain and form the embankment required for the
project.
 Surcharge fills are typically 10-25 feet thick and generally
produces settlement of 1 to 3 feet.
 Most effective in clay soils.

78
Consolidation - Time
How to reduce the time of consolidation
2
𝑇𝑣 𝐻 𝑑𝑟
𝑡=
𝑐𝑣
Time for consolidation is
controlled by the square of the
drainage path length.

1) Sand Drains
2) Prefabricated vertical drains
(PVDs)

79
Sand Drains
 Widely used between 1930 -1980.
 Diameters changing between 20-60 cm and with 1.5 to 6 m
spacing.

80
Prefabricated Vertical Drains

Drain core

Drain jacket

81
Prefabricated Vertical Drains

82
Prefabricated Vertical Drains

83
Preloading consolidation with
PVD Drains

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WP-4_5gMb14
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zobu0M4eaKU

84
 Drain diameter Typical Maximum
Drain type Installation method (m) spacing length (m)
(m)
Driven or vibratory closed-
Sand drain end mandrel (displacement 0.15-0.6 1-5 30
type)
Hollow stem continuous-
Sand drain flight auger (low 0.3-0.5 2-5 35
displacement)
Sand drain Jetted (non-displacement) 0.2-0.3 2-5 30
Driven or vibratory closed-
Prefabricated end mandrel; flight anger; 30
sand drains rotary wash boring 0.06-0.15 1.2-4
(‘sandwicks’) (displacement or non-
displacement)
Prefabricated Driven or vibratory closed- 0.05-0.1
60
band-shaped end mandrel (displacement (equivalent 1.2-3.5
drains or low displacement) diameter)

85
Preloading Consolidation with Sand
Drains
Surcharge

Groundwater table

Vertical drainage Sand drain:

radius=
Sand drain
Radial Radial
drainage drainage

Vertical drainage

Sand Clay

(a) Section (a) Plan

Vertical drainage + Radial drainage

86
Preloading with sand drains
Degree of Consolidation Due to Combined Radial and
Vertical Drainage

( )
2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝑢
=𝑐 h + +𝑐 𝑣
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟
2
𝑟 𝜕 𝑟 𝜕𝑧
2

𝑈 𝑣 ,𝑟 =1−(1 −𝑈 𝑟 )(1 −𝑈 𝑣 )

Radial Vertical
Drainage Drainage
87
Degree of Consolidation Due to
Radial Drainage

[ ]
2
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝑢
=𝑐 h +
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 2

𝑈 𝑟 =1 −exp ⁡ (
− 8 𝑇𝑟
𝑚 )
𝑑𝑒
( )
2 2
𝑛 3 𝑛 −1 𝑛=
𝑚= 2 ln (𝑛 ) −
𝑛 −1 4𝑛
2 2𝑟 𝑑

dimensional time factor for radial drainage only

88
Preloading with drains
Influence Zone
s s
Considering an
equivalent area s
approach s
re re
Drains

Square pattern Triangular pattern

2
d = √ S
π de
2
22 3
d w r e =S 2 e
π
4
d e
d e ≈ 1.13 S d e ≈ 1.05 S
89
Degree of Consolidation Due to
Radial Drainage

90
Degree of Consolidation Due to
Vertical Drainage
2
∂𝑢 ∂ 𝑢
=𝑐 𝑣
∂𝑡 ∂𝑧
2

𝑐𝑣 𝑡
𝑇 𝑣= 2
𝐻 𝑑𝑟

Time factor

91
Preloading with drains
𝑘𝑣
𝑐 𝑣=
𝑚𝑣 γ 𝑤 𝑐 h 𝑘h
𝑘h =
𝑐 h= 𝑐 𝑣 𝑘𝑣
𝑚𝑣 γ 𝑤
Range of possible field values for for soft clays
Nature of Clay
No or slightly developed microfabric, essentially 1 to 1.5
homogeneous deposits
From fairly well to well developed microfabric, e.g. 2 to 4
sedimentary clays with discontinuous lenses and layers of
more permeable material

Varved clays and other deposits containing embedded and 3 to 15

more or less continuous permeable layers
92
Example 4 (based on Example 2 & 3)
During the construction of a highway bridge, the average permanent
load on the clay layer is expected to increase by about 115 kN/m2.
The average effective overburden pressure at the middle of the clay
layer is 210 kN/m2. Here, H =6 m, Cc =0.28, eo =0.9, and cv =0.36
m2/month. The clay is normally consolidated.

What is the surcharge needed to eliminate by preloading (with sand

drains) the entire primary consolidation settlement in nine months?

𝑟 𝑑=0.1𝑚 𝑑𝑒 =3.0 𝑚
𝑐h
=1
𝑐𝑣

93
Preloading with vertical drains -
Summary
Degree of Consolidation Due to Combined horizontal
(Radial) and Vertical Drainage

( )
2 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝑢
=𝑐 h + +𝑐 𝑣
𝜕𝑡 𝜕h
2
h 𝜕 h 𝜕𝑧
2

Horizontal (Radial) Vertical

Drainage Drainage

94
Analysis and design of preloading
with vertical drains
Design and analysis may involve:
1) Determining the degree of consolidation (U) for given
PVDs’ spacing (S) and time (t).
2) Determining the consolidation time (t) for given degree
of consolidation (U) and PVDs’ spacing (S).
3) Determining the PVD’s spacing (S) for given degree of
consolidation (U) and consolidation time (t).

U t

S
95