Curtin University Malaysia

STEN 2002 Civil Engineering Materials

Open Ended Lab Report 2(A): Concrete Design Mix

Members:
Jordan Chin Shin Yinn 19926645
Brandon Ng Kah Meng 19924801
Lee Hong Lin 19938941

Submission
6th April 2020

Lecturer
Dr. Nurul Noraziemah Binti Mohd Pauzi
Contents
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................1
Data Collection Method..............................................................................................................................3
The report is just a predetermined paperwork, and most of the data were collected via online research.
However, as a professional engineer, we must determine the reality of the data. The result we obtained
should be tested on professional equipment in the future.........................................................................3
Analysis........................................................................................................................................................4
Collecting Data........................................................................................................................................4
Calculation for Concrete Mix for Normal Condition................................................................................6
Concrete Parameters...........................................................................................................................6
Material Parameters............................................................................................................................6
Target Strength....................................................................................................................................7
Free-water/Cement ratio.....................................................................................................................8
Lower Bound of The Typical Range of Slump.......................................................................................9
Free-water Content...........................................................................................................................10
Cement Content................................................................................................................................10
Wet Density of Concrete...................................................................................................................11
Total Aggregate Content....................................................................................................................12
Fine Aggregate Content and Coarse Aggregate Content...................................................................13
Quantities..........................................................................................................................................14
Result.....................................................................................................................................................15
Discussion..................................................................................................................................................16
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................17
References.................................................................................................................................................18
Introduction
The lab report 2(A) is focused on the development of a concrete mix design for a client
requiring an acceptable design for a two-story residential building located in a coastal region.
Within this article, aspects of the concrete's efficiency will be measured, such as its strength,
durability and permeability. It also measures the effect of chlorine and sulphur on the strength
of the concrete and the quality of the materials used in the building mix.
The toughness of concrete is related to factors such as water absorption, weight loss /
gain ratio, extensive strength and porosity. The sustainability problems are a big concern for
this project, because they are for a building in a coastal region where it is exposed to extreme
heat and saltwater.
Coastal areas, including large freshwater lakes, are generally described as the interface
or transition areas between land and sea. Coastal areas are complex in function and form, fluid
and by strict spatial boundaries do not lend themselves well to classification. Unlike the
watersheds, there are no exact natural limits that describe coastal areas unambiguously.
Geologically, there are two types of continental margins: active margins where the edge of a
continent tends to be at the edge of an oceanic plate and passive margins where the transition
from continental lithosphere to oceanic lithosphere is inside a crust rather than at the edge of a
crust (LONGDOM, n.d.).
Durability is one of the factors which can affect the performance of the concrete (The
Constructor, n.d.). A durable concrete is one that performs satisfactorily for the defined
existence of the construction under projected exposure conditions. Different factors influencing
concrete toughness is as listed below.

1. Cement Content
2. Aggregate Quality
3. Water Quality
4. Concrete Compaction
5. Curing Period
6. Permeability
7. Moisture
8. Temperature
9. Abrasion
10. Carbonation
11. Wetting and Drying Cycles
12. Freezing and Thawing
13. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction
14. Sulfate Attack
 15. Organic Acids

Concrete permeability is defined as the property which controls the rate of fluid flow
into a porous solid. It depends mostly on the number of pores, pores accessibility and how
tortuous the direction is for the permeating material (Abobaker,2015). There are few key
factors which affect concrete's permeability which is water to cement ratio, compaction of
concrete and curing of concrete (Constructor,2011.) Other than that, age of concrete,
properties of cement, aggregate, loss of mixing water and admixtures also count as other
factors.
Specific forms of admixtures are used in concrete to enhance the concrete efficiency.
Concrete admixture is characterized as the material added to concrete other than the mortar,
water, and cement. Concrete admixtures are used to change its properties in specific ways.
Many specific applications include improved workability, increased or decreased curing time
and increased concrete strength. Admixtures may also be used for cosmetic purposes, such as
adjusting the cement tone (Constructor,2000). Below are the types of concrete admixtures.

1. Water Reducing Admixtures

2. Retarding Admixtures
3. Accelerating Admixtures
4. Air entraining concrete admixture
5. Pozzolanic Admixtures
6. Damp-proofing Admixtures
7. Gas forming Admixtures
8. Air detraining Admixtures
9. Alkali Aggregate Expansion Inhibiting Admixtures
10. Anti-washout Admixtures
11. Grouting Admixtures
12. Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures
13. Bonding Admixtures
14. Fungicidal, Germicidal, Insecticidal Admixtures
15. Colouring Admixtures

Chloride Ingress is the penetration of chloride ion through (which comes from slat
containing chlorine) pores into permeable concrete. As chloride penetrates concrete it induces
extreme concrete expansion. As hardened concrete expands then the exterior layer of concrete
becomes distressed and as a result bonded aggregate separate and thus concrete cracking
occurs due to which concrete strength decreases and contributes to major structure problems.
O Elements like chlorine and sulphur chemically strike supporting steel bars of reinforced
concrete causing structural corrosion (AZom,2012).
Data Collection Method

In the research approach to the concrete mix concept, the expected references are primarily
national or international norms, for example, the Australia Standard AS, FEMA Code, American Concrete
Institute (ACI), India Code IS or British Model BS building code. The above-mentioned code is recognised
by a global construction authority. Malaysia appears to be pursued by BS, because of any history
narrative. Comparing the other standard of the British program, however, proved that the quality of BS
and search facility was small.

In addition, the rest of the study material had been found online. While researching on the
online material, keywords such as “admixture”, “coastal”, “concrete”, “durability” and “chloride ingress”
was used.

While searching for materials online, most of our data that we collected are in the form of
journal articles, which are from ResearchGate or government document. Data from google search will
be collected when both resources mentioned above didn’t provide us with the data we are seeking. We
would not consider using any other data found except from reliable sources such as organization and
government unless we lack certain information. Data from books in Curtin Library will also be our first if
it it fulfils the requirement.

There are some books is relevant to our topics had been found in Library Curtin University
Malaysia. Cement and Concrete Research by P.Balaguru. However, the books such as Construction and
Building Materials by Aziz Hasan Mahmood and Ecological Engineering by Ryan S. McManus cannot be
used after through consideration because the point that was included did not match with our topic.

In Research Gate, some research that is related to our topic such as DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
IN COASTAL AREAS (SEVERE ZONE) by Girish Kumar and Effect of Supplementary Cementitious Materials
on Chloride Threshold and Corrosion Rate of Reinforcement by Matt O’Reilly were collected. But
Deterioration of concrete structures in coastal environment due to carbonation by Balaji Kvgd cannot be
used, as the experiment stated in the article is based on four existing structures with different ages that
are exposed to various atmospheric conditions. We require data that compares different concrete mix
design. Therefore, the data cannot be collected.

Calculation and formulas that we are using follows the guidelines from the lab sheets
information 2020 Semester 1 of Civil Engineering Material. No additional formulas taken from online
sources was adapted into this report.

The report is just a predetermined paperwork, and most of the data were collected via online
research. However, as a professional engineer, we must determine the reality of the data. The result we
obtained should be tested on professional equipment in the future.
Analysis
Collecting Data

The type of cement that is most appropriate is a mixture of 70% Ordinary Portland Cement (CEM
I) and 30% fly ash as this combination shows a better performance compared to the others in terms of
durability since it performs better in resisting chloride induced corrosion (Mott MacDonald Ltd. 2018).
Even though the 7-day strength of fly ash-based concretes is lower compared to the other concretes due
to a slower pozzolanic and hydration reactions, the development of the strengths of fly ash-based
concretes will tend to continue even after 28 days unlike CEM I concrete (Mott MacDonald Ltd. 2018).
The use of fly ash-based concrete will also reduce the migration coefficient values of the concrete as it
has very small values of chloride migration coefficient. It is also suggested that the best concrete mix
would need a minimum of 500 kg/m3 cement content (Mott MacDonald Ltd. 2018).

The type of admixture that should be used is high range water reducing admixture. It is used to
lower the amount of mixing water needed to produce a concrete, hence reducing the free-
water/cement ratio while keeping the slump and strength of the concrete (Ouattara et al. 2018). It will
also improve the workability of the concrete.

The parameters for the coarse aggregates chosen are:

Types of coarse aggregates Specific gravity Unit Weight (kg/m3)

20 mm crushed stone aggregates 2.74 1667
10 mm crushed stone aggregates 2.65 1472
Table 1: Parameters for the Coarse Aggregates

The parameter for the fine aggregate chosen is:

Type of fine aggregate Specific gravity Unit Weight (kg/m3) Fineness modulus
Sand (uncrushed) 2.57 1587 2.98
Table 2: Parameters for the Fine Aggregate

Constituents kg/m3
Cement 350
 Fly ash 150
Water 200
Coarse Aggregate 990
Sand 660
High Range Water Reducing Admixture 5

Compressive Strength at 28 days: 25.3MPa

Calculation for Concrete Mix for Normal Condition

All the data, tables, figures and formulas used in this section are taken from Civil Engineering Materials
Laboratory Sheet 2: Materials Technology Concrete (Design, Mix and Testing) Part A: Concrete Mix
Design (Batch A) which is attached as Appendix A.

Concrete Parameters

Concrete element type : Reinforced wall

Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days (MPa) : 32MPa

Material Parameters

Portland cement Type A (GP) : Density = 3150 kg/m3

Coarse Aggregate : 20mm (all in) crushed quartzite aggregate

Density = 2570 kg/m3

(Specific gravity = 2.57)

Fine Aggregate : sand (uncrushed)

Density = 2640 kg/m3

(Specific gravity = 2.64)

Fineness Modulus = 1.9

Target Strength

By using Table 1 and Table 2, it is found that the assumed standard deviation and statistical factor are
5.3 MPa and 1.65 respectively. Then Formula (1) is used to determine the Target Strength.

fcm = f’c + kσ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Formula (1)

= 32 + 1.65 * 5.3

= 40.745 MPa
Free-water/Cement ratio

By using Table 8.6, it is found that with Type GP cement, crushed coarse aggregate, and an ageing time
of 28 days, a free-water/cement ratio of 0.5 would give a compressive strength of 45 MPa. Then, a curve
passing through the point (0.5, 45) is drawn in Figure 8.6 with a slope similar to the closest given curve.
The curve drawn is then used to determine the free-water/cement ratio when the compressive strength
is 40.745 MPa. The resulting free-water/ cement ratio is 0.525.
Lower Bound of The Typical Range of Slump

By using Table 3, it is found that the lower bound of the typical range of slump for reinforced walls is
80mm.
Free-water Content

By using Table 8.7, it is found that the free-water content of the fine aggregate and coarse aggregate are
195kg/m3 and 225kg/m3 respectively. Then, Formula (2) is used to determine the total free-water
content.

2 1
free-water content = W f + W c -------------------------------------------------------------------------Formula (2)
3 3

2 1
= ( 195 ) + (225)
3 3

= 205 kg/m3

Cement Content

The cement content is determined by using Formula (3).

free −water content

Cement content =
free−water /cement ratio
-----------------------------------------------------------------Formula (3)

205
=
0.525

= 390.476 kg/m3
Wet Density of Concrete

2.57+2.64
The average of the specific gravities for the fine and coarse aggregates =
2

= 2.605

With Figure 8.10, the wet density of concrete is found by using the average of the specific gravities for
the fine and coarse aggregates which is 2.605 and the free-water content which is 205 kg/m 3. The wet
density of concrete found is 2350 kg/m3.
Total Aggregate Content
The total aggregate content is then calculated using Formula (4).

The total aggregate content = D – C – W ------------------------------------------------------------------- Formula (4)

Where D = wet density of concrete, kg/m3

C = cement content, kg/m3

W = free-water content, kg/m3

The total aggregate content = D – C – W

= 2350 – 205 – 390.476

= 1754.524 kg/m3
Fine Aggregate Content and Coarse Aggregate Content

First, the percentage of fine aggregate is determined by using Figure 8.5. The value is obtained by using
a Water/Cement ratio of 0.525 and a Fineness modulus of 1.9 for fine aggregate, which will give a fine
aggregate percentage of 32%. The fine aggregate and coarse aggregate content can then be calculated
by using this percentage.
 content∗32 %
Fine aggregate content = Total aggregate
100 %

= 1754.524 * 0.32

= 561.447 kg/m3

Coarse aggregate content = Total aggregate content – fine aggregate content

= 1754.524 – 561.447

= 1193.077

Quantities

Constituents kg/m3 kg (for a 0.04 m3 volume)

Water 205 8.2
Cement 390.476 15.619
Fine Aggregate 561.447 22.458
Coarse Aggregate 1193.077 47.723
Table 4: Mix Proportion for the Concrete Mix for Normal Condition.
Result

Coastal Condition Normal Condition

3
Constituents kg/m
Water 200 205
High Range Water Reducing Admixture 5 0
Cement 350 390.476
Fly Ash 150 0
Fine Aggregate 660 561.447
Coarse Aggregate 990 1193.077
Table 5: Comparison Between the Mix Proportions of Concrete Mix for Normal and Coastal Condition.

Coastal Condition Normal Condition

Compressive Strength at 28 Days 25.3 32
(MPa)
Free-water/Cement Ratio 0.4 0.525
Total Cement Content (kg/m3) 500 390.476
Total Aggregate Content (kg/m 3) 1650 1754.524
Free-water Content (kg/m3) 200 205
Use of High Range Water Yes No
Reducing Admixture
Table 6: Comparison Between the Characteristics of Concrete Mix for Normal and Coastal Condition.
Discussion

Structures built in coastal areas are exposed to different environmental conditions, which includes
variation in temperature, humidity, chlorides, sulphates and carbonation (Kvgd et al. 2010, 265). High
concentration of chlorides in coastal areas will initiate the corrosion process of reinforced concrete,
leading to cracking and the deteriorating of the concrete’s durability (Kumar et.al. 2015, 1).
Supplementary cementing materials such as fly ash and slag had been proven to improve the durability
of the concrete by decreasing the permeability of the concrete, resulting in a more controlled corrosion
rate (O'Reilly, Farshadfar and Darwin 2019, 125). Besides that, crushed brick aggregate because of its
higher chloride ion permeability has a lower durability performance compared to stone aggregate (Mott
MacDonald Ltd. 2018, 32). This can be proven by a chlorine migration test that is carried out to compare
the migration coefficient, which is stated as an indirect measure of concrete’s durability and it gives us a
representation on the ability to resist chloride ions (Mott MacDonald Ltd. 2018, 13) based on concrete
mixes that varies with coarse aggregates and supplementary cementing materials.

Fig 1: Comparison of migration coefficient for different concrete mixes. (Mott MacDonald Ltd. 2018,
116 Figure 4-12)

From the data above, it can be concluded that concrete mix of 30% Fly ash as supplementary cementing
material and stone aggregate showed the best durability performance to resist chloride induced
corrosion as it has the lowest value of migration coefficient.
Conclusion

In conclusion several past studies have deduced that the harsh environmental conditions of
coastal areas will have detrimental effects on the durability of the cement. It shows that the concrete
mixture should be designed by considering factors that contribute to concrete deterioration which
includes chloride ingress that will initiate the corrosion process of the concrete structure. Precautions
and considerations such as type of aggregate and presence of admixture should be made before
constructing any building near coastal areas. The report has achieved the requirement from the client by
designing a suitable concrete mix of 30% Fly Ash with stone aggregates that can help to build durable
concrete structures capable of withstanding the harsh coastal conditions.
References

Ouattara, Drissa, Tikou Belem, Mamert Mbonimpa, and Ammar Yahia. 2018. “Effect of Superplasticizers
on the Consistency and Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cemented Paste Backfills.” Construction
and Building Materials 181: 59-72.
doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.288.

Kvgd, Balaji & S Gopalaraju & T. Jena. 2010. “Deterioration of concrete structures in coastal environment
due to carbonation.” Journal of environmental science & engineering. 52. 265-8.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/50361826_Deterioration_of_concrete_structures_in
_coastal_environment_due_to_carbonation

Kumar, Girish & Abhishek Salkar & Abhishek Master & Anand Bhattad & Katta Venkataramana & K
Rajendra Prabhu. 2015). “DURABILITY OF CONCRETE IN COASTAL AREAS (SEVERE ZONE).”
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297714040_DURABILITY_OF_CONCRETE_IN_COAST
AL_AREAS_SEVERE_ZONE

Matt O'Reilly & Omid Farshadfar & David Darwin. 2019. “Effect of Supplementary Cementitious
Materials on Chloride Threshold and Corrosion Rate of Reinforcement.” ACI Materials Journal. 116.
10.14359/51710968.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330053977_Effect_of_Supplementary_Cementitious
_Materials_on_Chloride_Threshold_and_Corrosion_Rate_of_Reinforcement

Mott MacDonald Ltd. 2018. “Climate Resilient Concrete Structures in Marine Environment of
Bangladesh.” Final Project Report.
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5e1c9d0de5274a06bd505743/MottMacDonald-
2018-ClimateResilientConcreteStructuresMarineEnvironment-AsCAP-BAN2077A-
180216.compressed.pdf