CH 6

MOTIVATION
 MEANING AND DEFINITION
Motivation is an important factor which encourages
persons to give their best performance and help in
reaching enterprise goals. A strong positive motivation
will enable the increased output of employee but a
negative motivation will reduce their performance.
Memoria : “A willingness to expend energy to achieve
a goal or reward. It is a force that activates dormant
energies and sets in motion the action of the people. It
is the function that kindles a burning passion for
action among the human beings of an organisation.”
 NATURE OF MOTIVATION
 Motivation is an inner feeling which energizes a
person to work more.
 The emotions or desires of a person prompt him
for doing a particular work.
 There are unsatisfied needs of a person which
disturb his equilibrium.
 A person moves to fulfil his unsatisfied needs by
conditioning his energies.
 There are dormant energies in a person which
are activated by channelising them into actions.
 IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION

Management tries to utilise all the sources of production in a best

possible manner. This can be achieved only when employees
co-operate in this task. Efforts should be made to motivate
employees for contributing their maximum. The efforts of
management will not bear fruit if the employees are not
encouraged to work more. The motivated employees become
an asset to the organisation.
• High performance.
Low employee turnover and absenteeism
Better organizational image
Better industrial relations
Acceptability to change
TECHNIQUES TO INCREASE MOTIVATION

Motivational techniques may be classified into two categories

i.e., financial and non-financial.
Financial Motivators
Financial motivators may be in the form of more wages and
salaries, bonuses, profit-sharing, leave with pay, medical
reimbursements, company paid insurance or any of the other
thing that may be given to employees for performance.

The economists and most managers consider money and

financial incentives as important motivators. Behavioural
scientists, on the other hand, tend to place them low, neither
view is probably right.
Non financial Motivators
The non financial motivators are given in the form of:
Status
Recognition
Participation
Competition
Job enrichment
 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
1.Maslow’s need hierarchy theory
2.Alderfer’s ERG theory
3.Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory
4.McGregor’s theory X and theory Y
5 Theory Z
6.Vroom’s expectancy theory
7.Porter and Lawler model of motivation
8.Equity theory of motivation
9.McClelland’s need theory of motivation
10.Goal setting theory
11.Reinforcement theory
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
Probably the most widely known theory of individual
need and motivation comes from Abraham Maslow
who was a clinical psychologist in U.S.A., Maslow. He
suggested that every individual has a complex set of
exceptionally strong needs and the behaviour of an
individual at a particular moment is usually
determined by his strongest need. Maslow stated that
people have five basic levels of needs which they tend
to satisfy in a hierarchical fashion. He proposed that
human needs can be arranged in a particular order
from the lowest level need to the highest level need.
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contd
 (i) There are five levels of needs.
 (ii) All these needs are arranged in a hierarchy.
 (iii) A satisfied need is no longer a need. Once a need or a certain
order of need is satisfied it ceases to be a motivating factor.
 (iv) Once one level of need is satisfied, the next level of need will
emerge as the depressed needs seeking to be satisfied.
 (v) The physiological and security needs are finite but the needs of
higher order are infinite and are likely to be dominant in persons at
higher levels in the organisation.
 (vi) Maslow suggests that various levels are interdependent and
overlapping. Each higher level emerging before the lower level need has
been completely satisfied. Even though a need is satisfied it will
influence behaviour because of interdependent and overlapping
characteristic of needs.
Evaluation of Maslow’s Theory
Maslow theory has been widely appreciated.
(i) It helps the managers in understanding how to
motivate the employees.
(ii) This theory is very simple, common and easily
understandable.
(iii) It accounts for both inter-personal and intra-
personal variations in human behaviour.
(iv) This theory is dynamic because it presents
motivation as a changing force ; changing from one
level of needs to the another level.
Criticism of Maslow’s Theory
 Researchers have proved that there is lack of hierarchical structure of needs as
suggested by Maslow, though every individual has some ordering for his need
satisfaction. Some people may be deprived of their lower level needs but may strive for
self actualisation needs.
 Another problem is that there is a lack of direct cause and effect relationship between
need and behaviour. One particular need may cause different type of behaviour in
different persons. On the other hand, as a particular individual behaviour may be due to
the result of different needs. Thus, need hierarchy is not as simple as it appears to be.
 Need and satisfaction of needs is a psychological feeling. Sometimes even the person
may not be aware about his own needs. How can the managers come to know about
these needs ?
 Some people say that hierarchy of need simply does not exist. At all levels needs are
present at given time. An individual motivated by self actualisation needs cannot afford
to forget his food. But this criticism is solved by Maslow by saying that needs are
interdependent and overlapping.
 Another problem with this theory is the operationalisation of some of his concepts
which makes it difficult for the researchers to test his theory. For instance, how does
one measure self actualisation ?
 ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
 Clayton Alderfer reformulated Maslow’s need hierarchy theory. The ERG
need theory developed by Alderfer, condenses the five needs given by
Maslow into three needs. The ERG word is derived from the first letters of
each of these levels of needs. The three needs are:
 Existence Needs
 Relatedness Needs
 Growth Needs
Alderfer revised Maslow’s theory in other ways also :
 Maslow’s need hierarchy follows a rigid, step like progression. The ERG theory
on the other hand assumes that more than one need may be operative at the
same time.
 The ERG theory also improves the Maslow’s theory on the ground that a person
does not stay at a certain level until that need is satisfied. Maslow was of the
opinion that a person will move to the next level only if the needs of the
previous level are satisfied. The ERG theory counters this by saying that when a
higher level need is frustrated, the individual’s desire to increase a lower level
need takes place.
 Evaluation of ERG Theory
The main advantages of the ERG theory are as follows :
 Alderfer’s ERG theory is more consistent with our knowledge of individual
differences among people. Every individual will have different importance for
different group of needs depending upon his education, family background
and cultural environment. In this context, ERG theory is more relevant as
compared to the Maslow’s theory.
 ERG theory takes the strong points of the earlier content theories but it is less
restrictive and limiting as compared to the others.

Disadvantages of the theory are as follows :

 The ERG theory does not offer clear cut guidelines. This theory says that an
individual can satisfy any of the three needs first. But how will we determine
which of the three needs is more important to that person.
 This theory is a new concept as compared to the Maslow’s theory. Alderfer’s
research has indicated some degree of support for the theories but yet it is too
early to pass judgment on the overall validity of the theory.
HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY
Fredrick Herzberg and his associates developed the
MOTIVATION HYGIENE THEORY, commonly known
as the two factor theory, in the late 1950s and early
1960s. Herzberg was of the view that there are certain
factors that tend to be consistently related to job
satisfaction and on the other hand, there are some
factors, which are consistently related to job
dissatisfaction. The last of job conditions, he referred
to as MAINTENANCE OR HYGIENE factors and the
first job conditions as MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS.
The motivational factors are intrinsic in nature and
the hygiene factors are extrinsic in nature.
 Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors or the maintenance factors do not motivate people, they simply prevent
.

dissatisfaction and maintain status quo. Such factors do not produce positive results but
prevent negative results. If these factors are not there it will lead to job dissatisfaction.
These are not motivators, as they maintain a zero level of motivation or in other words,
these factors do not provide any satisfaction but eliminate dissatisfaction.
According to Herzberg there are ten maintenance or hygiene factors :
 1.Company Policy & Administration
 2.Technical Supervision
 3.Inter-personal relations with Supervisor
4. Inter-personal relations with peers
 5.Inter-personal relations with subordinates
 6.Salary
 7.Job security
 8.Personal life
 9.Working conditions
 10.Status
 Motivational Factors
These factors are intrinsic in nature and are related to the
job. The motivational factors have a positive effect on job
satisfaction and often result in an increase in total output.
Thus, these factors have a positive influence on morale,
satisfaction, efficiency and productivity. Herzberg
concluded that six factors motivate the employees:
 Achievement
 Advancement
 Possibility of growth
 Recognition
 Work itself
 Responsibility
 Critical Analysis of Theory
 Herzberg’s theory is appreciated on the ground that it provides an insight into the task of
motivation by drawing attention to the job factors which are often overlooked. It shows the
value of job enrichment in motivation.
 Thus, Herzberg’s theory has solved the problems of managers who were wondering why their
policies failed to motivate the employees adequately.

 However, this theory has also not gone unchallenged. It has been criticised on the following
grounds :
 Not Conclusive. The critics say that this theory is not conclusive because the professionals or
the white collar workers may like responsibility and challenging jobs. But the general workers
are motivated by pay and other benefits. The effect of hygiene and motivational factors may
totally be reverse on some other categories of people.
 Methodology. Another criticism of this theory is directed at the method of research and data
collection. The interviewers were asked to report exceptionally good or exceptionally bad job
experience. This methodology is defective because such information will always be subjective
and biased.
 Job Enrichment. This theory has given too much emphasis on job enrichment and has totally
ignored job satisfaction of the workers. He didn’t attach much importance to pay, status or
interpersonal relationships which are generally held as great motivators.
 MCGREGOR’S THEORY X THEORY Y
 Douglas McGregor introduced these two theories i.e., Theory X and Theory Y, based on
two distinct views of human beings. He proposed, at opposite extremes, two pairs of
assumptions about human beings which he thought were implied by the actions of the
managers.
Theory X.
This theory is based on the traditional approach to human behaviour. The assumptions
generally, held by the managers in this theory are:
 The average human beings inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it, whenever
possible.
 As the employees are lazy, they must be controlled, coerced, threatened with punishment
to achieve goals, to which they are indifferent.
 Average employees will try to avoid responsibility and seek formal directions whenever
possible, because they have relatively little ambition.
 Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work. These
assumptions about human nature are negative in their approach.
Managers who advocate these views feel that extreme control is most appropriate for dealing
with irresponsible and immature employees. This is an autocratic style of leadership based
on the traditional theory of what workers are like and what management must do to
motivate them. Workers have to be persuaded and pushed into performance.
 Theory Y
 This theory makes the following assumptions about people :
 The average human being does not inherently dislike work. He can view work as
natural or enjoyable as rest or play.
 Employees will exercise self direction and self control in the attainment of the
objectives to which they are committed.
 Given proper working conditions, average person can learn to accept and even to seek
responsibility.
 Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their
achievement.
 All the people are capable of making innovative & creative decisions and the decision
making is not the sole management by objectives and participative management
techniques are great motivators for the employee.province of the people in
management positions.

This theory has assumed a new approach in management. It emphasises on co-operation

between management and employees. The individual and organisational goals do not
conflict in this approach. This theory places greater emphasis on satisfaction of high
level needs of the employees. McGregor himself holds that the assumptions of theory
Y are more valid than Theory X.
APPLICABILITY OF THEORY X AND THEORY Y

 Theory X and the Theory Y represent two extremes. No person can

belong to these two extreme situations. Each person possesses the traits
of Theory X and Theory Y, though the degrees may be different under
different situations.
 Though, no generalisations can be made, still it appears that theory X is
more applicable to unskilled and uneducated lower class workers who
work for the satisfaction of their physiological needs only.
 Theory Y appears to be applicable to the educated, skilled and
professional employees who understand their responsibilities and do not
need any direction and control.
 However, there can be exceptions. A lower level employee may be more
responsible and mature than a well qualified high level employee.
 Still these theories are very important tools in understanding the
behaviour of human being and in designing the motivational schemes.
 The management should use a combination of both the theories to
motivate different employees.
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 Victor Vroom made an important contribution to the understanding of the
concept of motivation and the decision processes that people use to determine
how much effort they will expend on their jobs.
 This model is based on the belief that motivation is determined by the nature of
the reward people expect to get as a result of their job performance.
 Because man is a rational human being he will try to maximise the perceived value
of such rewards.
 People will be highly motivated if they are made to believe that if they behave in a
particular way, they will receive a certain type of outcome according to their
personal preference.
 There are three variables in Vroom’s model given in the form of an equation. Since
the model is a multiplier, all the three variables must have high positive value to
imply motivated performance choices. If any of the variable is zero, the probability
of motivated performance tends to be zero.

 MOTIVATION = VALENCE ´ EXPECTANCY ´ INSTRUMENTALITY

 Valence. Valence means the attraction (or repulsion) of an
outcome to the individual. Whenever an individual has preference
for a reward valance is the strength of that preference. The valence
is something subjective and varies from person to person.
 Valance is deemed to be positive for an individual if he prefers
attaining the outcome to not attaining it.
 Valence is zero, if the individual is indifferent towards the outcome
and the valence will be negative if the individual prefers not
attaining the outcome to attaining it.
 In simple words we can say that the worker must value the reward
as desired and satisfactory. It is not the actual value of the reward,
but the perceived value of the reward in the mind of the worker
which is important.
 Expectancy. It is also referred to as the Effort-Performance
Probability. It refers to the extent to which the person believes his
efforts will lead to the first level outcome i.e., completion of the task.
 Expectancy is the probability that a particular action will lead to the
outcome, it is the perception in the mind of the individual of the
likelihood that a particular action or behaviour will lead to a certain
outcome.
 Since it is an association between effort and performance, its value
can range between 0 and 1.
 If the individual feels that the probability of achieving an outcome is
zero, he will not even try.
 On the other hand, if probability is higher, he will put more efforts to
achieve the desired outcome.
 Instrumentality (Performance-Reward Probability).Instrumentality
refers to the probabilities attached by the individual to each possible
performance-outcome alternative just as the individual previously
assigned probabilities to various levels of effort leading to different levels
of performance (expectancy).
 In simple words, instrumentality refers to the belief and expectation of a
person that his performance will lead to a particular desired reward.
 For example, if an individual wants a promotion and feels that superior
performance is very important in receiving the promotion. Superior
performance is the first level outcome and the promotion is the second
level outcome. Superior performance (First level outcome) will be
instrumental in obtaining the desired promotion (Second level outcome).
 The value of instrumentality also varies between 0 to 1 as it is also the
probability of achieving the desired outcome.
As the relationship suggests, (Motivation = V ´ E ´ I)
motivational force will be highest when all the three
factors are high and the force will be reduced when
any one or more of valence, expectancy or
instrumentality approaches zero.
The management must recognise and determine the
situation as it exists and take steps to improve up on
these factors for modification of behaviour, so that
highest value can be achieved individually
EVALUATION OF THE EXPECTANCY MODEL
Vroom’s theory has become very popular and it has provided an alternative to content theories, which
according to him, were inadequate explanations of the complex process of work motivation. The
plus points of this theory are :
• The expectancy model is highly useful in understanding organisational behaviour. It can improve
the relationship between the individual and the organisational goals.
• The expectancy theory is a cognitive theory, which values human dignity.
• This theory helps the managers in looking beyond what Maslow and Herzberg implied. According
to him motivation does not mean satisfying the unsatisfied needs. The managers must make it
possible for an employee to see that effort can result in appropriate need satisfying rewards.

Despite these plus points, there are some drawbacks of Vroom’s expectancy model as given below :
 Vroom’s theory is difficult to research and apply in practice. This is evident by the fact that there
have been a very few research studies designed specifically to test Vroom’s theory.
 This theory assumes man to be a rational human being who makes all the decisions consciously. But
there are numerous instances where decisions are taken with no conscious thought.
• Although, it is an important theory of motivation but it is quite complex. Many managers, in actual
organisational situations, do not have the time or sources to use a complex system on the job.

To conclude, we can say that from the theoretical point of view, this model is a step in the right
direction, but from practical point of view, it does not help the manager in solving the complex
Porter and Lawler Model of Motivation
 Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler came up with a comprehensive
theory of motivation, combining the various aspects that we have so far
been discussing and using two additional variables in their model. This
is a multi variate model which explains the relationship that exists
between job attitudes and job performance.
This model is based on four basic assumptions about human behaviour :
 As mentioned above, it is a multi variate model. According to this
model, individual behaviour is determined by a combination of factors
in the individual and in the environment.
 Individuals are assumed to be rational human beings who make
conscious decisions about their behaviour in the organisations.
 Individuals have different needs, desires and goals.
 On the basis of their expectations, individuals decide between
alternate behaviours and such decided behaviour will lead to a desired
outcome.
The various elements of this model are as follows :
 Effort. Effort refers to the amount of energy which a person exerts on a job.
 Value of Reward. First of all people try to figure out whether rewards that are likely be received from
doing a job will be attractive to them. This is referred to as valence in Vroom’s theory.
 Perceived Effort Reward Probability. In addition, before people put forth any effort, they will also try
to assess the probability of a certain level of effort leading to a desired level of performance and the
possibility of that performance leading to certain kinds of rewards. Based on the valence of the reward
and the effort reward probability, people can decide to put in certain level of work effort.
 Performance. Effort leads to performance. The expected level of performance will depend upon the
amount of effort, the abilities and traits of the individual and his role perceptions. Thus, abilities and
traits will moderate the effort-performance relationship. In addition, people performing the jobs should
have accurate role perception which refers to the way in which people define their jobs. People may
perceive their roles differently. Only those, who perceive their roles as is defined by the organisation,
will be able to perform well when they put forth the requisite effort.
 Rewards. Performance leads to certain outcomes in the shapes of two types of rewards namely extrinsic
rewards and intrinsic rewards.
 Extrinsic rewards are the external rewards given by others in the organisation in the form of money,
recognition or praise. Intrinsic rewards are internal feelings of job, self esteem and sense of
competence that individuals feel when they do a good job.
 Satisfaction. Satisfaction will result from both extrinsic and instrinsic rewards. However, for being
satisfied, an individual will compare his actual rewards with the perceived rewards if actual rewards
meet or exceed perceived equitable rewards, the individual will feel satisfied and if these are less than
the equitable rewards, the individual will feel dissatisfied.
Significance of the Porter and Lawler Model

This model is of great significance to managers since it sensitises them to focus their
attention on the following points to keep their employees motivated:
1. Match the abilities and traits of individuals to the requirements of the job by
putting the right person on the right job.
2. He should carefully explain to the subordinates their roles or what they must do
to be rewarded. Then he must make sure that they understand it.
3. Prescribe in concrete terms the actual performance levels expected of the
individuals and these levels should be made attainable.
4. To achieve and maintain motivation, the appropriate reward must be associated
with successful performance.
 5. Make sure that the rewards dispensed are valued by the employees. Thus, he
should find out what rewards are attractive to the employee and see if such rewards can
be given to him.
Porter and Lawler model has definitely made a significant contribution to the better
understanding of work motivation and the relationship between performance and
satisfaction. But even then todate it has not made much impact on the actual practice of
Human Resource Management.
EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION
 The Equity theory owes its origin to several prominent theorists. However, it is J.
Stacey Adam’s formulation of the theory which is most highly developed and
researched statement on the topic. According to Adams, equity theory is based on the
simple assumption that people want to be treated fairly.
 The equity theory helps in understanding both the causes and likely consequences of
feelings of unequitable treatment among organisation members.
 Adams has defined two specific words viz. person and other. Person is any individual
for whom equity or unequity exists. Other is defined as any individual with whom a
person is in relevant exchange relationship or with whom a person compares himself.
 Adams describes the equity comparison process in terms of input/output ratios.
 Inputs are an individual’s contribution to the organisation. Such as the person’s
training, education, skills, experience, ethnic background, effort and loyalty.
 Outputs are what he receives in return.
 An individual can receive many positive and negative outcomes from the organisation.
 The outcomes which an individual receive are in the form of pay, working conditions,
recognition, social relationships, level of supervision etc.
 The individual alone decides whether an outcome is positive or negative.
 People assess the ratio between their outcomes and their relevant inputs. Each person
compares this ratio with the ratio of another person or group of people.
 A feeling of equity results when an individual perceives the ratios as equal.
 The situation happens in a work environment where a person feels that he and his co-
worker are paid the same amount and that their relevant inputs are also the same.
 A feeling of equity can also occur when other’s outcomes are higher (or lower) than
the person’s and when other’s inputs are also higher (or lower). This form of equity is
common in organisations. A person does not feel inequitably treated if his superior is
getting a higher salary than him.
 In case, there is inequality in the ratios of outcomes and inputs, people can experience
two types of inequity-positive and negative.
 In negative inequity people feel that they are under paid for what they give the
organisation and in positive inequity they feel that they are paid more than their work
is worth.
 The amount of inequity is proportional to the size of the perceived discrepancy in the
two ratios.
 The basic equity theory assumes that upon feeling inequity, the person is motivated
to reduce it. Further, the greater the inequity the greater the motivation to reduce it.
The person with a feeling of inequity can try a
number of alternatives viz. :-

Change Inputs.
Change Outcomes.
Alter Perceptions of Self.
Alter Perception of Other..
Change Comparisons.
Leave Situation.
Evaluation of the Equity Theory

The equity theory has generated extensive research, with many of the results being supportive. \
• The theory recognises the influence of social comparison processes on motivation.
• Individuals are concerned not only with the amount of rewards they receive for their efforts but
also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive.
• Equity motive tends to be one of the important motives with the employees.
• Lastly compared to the other theories, the equity theory adopts a realistic approach to motivation.
This theory postulates that a major share of individual behaviour is based on the perceived
situation rather than on the actual set of circumstances.

The equity theory is not free from criticism.

• The central theme of the theory is the judgement of fair treatment. But, in reality, the concept of
fairness is not appreciated by all.
• Equity predictions are more likely to apply to people who are morally mature.
• There are some practical difficulties also in applying equity theory e.g. (i) How does a person
choose the comparison other ? (ii) How to assess the perception of people about inputs/outcomes
relationships ? (iii) Is a given factor an input or an outcome e.g. responsibility ? (iv) Under what
circumstances will each method of inequity resolution be used?
Regardless of these problems, the equity theory continues to offer us some important insights into
employees motivation. The managers find it very useful in managing and motivating people
through equitable rewards.
McClelland’s Need Theory of Motivation
Another appreciable contribution to the concept of motivation is David McClelland’s Need
Theory. According to McClelland there are three major motives or needs in work place,
which motivate the people.
These are :
The Need for Achievement. Some people have high achievement motivation. They want to
excel to achieve standards and strive to succeed. Such people should be given tasks and
powers enabling them to utilise their potential effectively. Opportunities would help them
to strive for higher achievements.
The Need for Power. The need for power is concerned with influencing others and winning
arguments. People with high need for power derive satisfaction from being in position of
influence and control. To motivate such people positions of power and authority should
be given to them.
The Need for Affiliation. Some people need and desire friendly and close interpersonal
relationships. People dominated by such need are interested in jobs that provide
opportunities for social interaction.
According to this theory, every person has three types of needs may be in varying degrees.
The motivator should use motivators to the extent to which each person needs it. Each
person has physiological and safety needs also, which must also be satisfied.
Limitations.
Despite the appreciation of the theory, it suffers
from the following limitations :
 Need and satisfaction of needs is a psychological thing.
Sometimes even the person may not be aware of his own
needs. In such a case, it will be difficult for the manager to
understand the employee’s need.
 There is no direct cause and effect relationship between

need and behaviour. One particular need may cause

different types of behaviour in different persons. On the
other hand, a particular individual behaviour may be the
result of different needs.
 The physiological and safety needs are more important as

compared to McClelland’s needs.

GOAL SETTING THEORY
Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work
toward a goal are a major source of work motivation.
Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how
much effort to be put in. Specific goals increase
performance. Difficult goals when accepted, result in
higher performance than do easy goals. Moreover,
feedback leads to higher performance than does non-
feedback.
Goal-Setting theory emphasises the following points :
(i) If factors such as ability and acceptance of the goals are held constant, it can be
stated that the more difficult goal, the higher the level of performance. Once an
employee accepts a hard task, he or she will exert a high level of effort until it is
achieved, lowered or abandoned.

(ii) People will do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing
toward their goals because feedback helps to identify discrepancies between what they
have done and what they want to do.

(iii) Feedback is not equally potent. Self-generated feedback–where the employee is

able to monitor his or her own progress– has proved to be a more powerful motivator
than externally generated feedback.

(iv) If people participate in goal setting, they are more likely to accept even a difficult
goal than if they are arbitrarily assigned it by their boss. People are basically committed
to choices in which they have a part. A major advantage of participation may be
increasing acceptance of the goal itself as a desirable one toward which to work.
 There are four factors which influence the Goal-performance relationship. These
are :
 Goal Commitment. Goal setting theory assumes that an employee is committed
to the goal, that is, he is determined not to lower or abandon the goal.
 Self-Efficacy. Self efficacy refers to an individual’s belief that he is capable of

performing a task. The higher the self efficacy of a person, the more confidence he
will have in his ability to succeed in a task.
 Task characteristics. Research indicates that individual goal setting doesn’t work

equally well on all tasks. The evidence suggests that goals seem to have a more
substantial effect on performance when tasks are simple rather than complex, well
learned rather than novel, and independent rather than interdependent. On
interdependent tasks group goals are preferable.
 National Culture. Goal setting theory is culture bound. It can apply in countries

where the employees are reasonably independent, where both managers and
employees seek challenging goals and where performance is considered important
by both it will not lead to desired performance in countries where opposite
conditions exist.
To conclude, it can be said that hard and specific goals, are a great motivating force. Under
proper conditions, these can lead to higher performance. However, there is no evidence to
prove, that such goals will lead to increased job satisfaction.
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory is a counter point to the Goal-setting
theory. Reinforcement theorists believe that behaviour of people
is environmentally caused. They argue that one need not be
concerned with internal cognitive events, what controls behaviour
are reinforces any consequence that, when immediately following
a response, increases the probability that the behaviour will be
repeated.
Strictly speaking, reinforcement theory is not a theory of
motivation. However, it provides a powerful means of analysis of
what controls behaviour. Reinforcement is an important influence
on behaviour. However, only a few scholars are prepared to argue
that it is the only influence. The behaviours one engages in at
work and the amount of effort one allocates to each task are
affected by the consequences that follow from one’s behaviour.
INTEGRATING MOTIVATION THEORIES

Thus, universality of motivational strategy is not possible.

But the role of organisation in integrating motivation theories
has been very vital.
An organisational climate makes motivational theories more
effective.
 The manager’s role, attitude, size, shape and credibility of the
organisation influences the motivational process.
 Integrating various theories has become most effective
motivational techniques which is applied as per individual
characteristics, organisational variables, search and choice
behaviour, available incentives and relevant theories of
motivation.