Calculus 2

Parametric Equations
Graphing Techniques Using Calculus
• The first and second derivatives of a function have been shown to
give us a wealth of information about the shape of the curve.
• Combining this with our previous understanding of functions,
specifically symmetry, domain, and range, we are able to create a
checklist of skills that allow us to sketch any function that is not
easily recognisable.
 Calculus 2
Parametric Equations
Graphing Techniques Using Calculus
• With curve sketching, you must identify essential characteristics of a
function to produce a curve sketch.
• The first derivative and the second derivative also provide useful
information

X and Y intercepts

Domain and Range Symmetry

Function Analysis
Vertical, Horizontal, Oblique Asymptotes

Continuity
 Calculus 2
Parametric Equations
Graphing Techniques Using Calculus
Critical Numbers
First Derivative Analysis Increasing or Decreasing Intervals

Relative Extrema

Absolute Extrema

Points on Intersections

Second Derivative Analysis

Concavity
 Calculus 2
Parametric Equations

Critical Numbers
Increasing or Decreasing Intervals

Relative Extrema

Absolute Extrema

Points on Intersections

Concavity
 Calculus 2
Parametric Equations
Maxima and Minima
• Suppose then that we are given a function and a domain S
• Does f(x) have a maximum or minimum value on S?
• If it does have a maximum or a minimum, where are they
attained?
• If they exist, what are the maximum and minimum values?
 Calculus 2
Parametric Equations
 Calculus 2
Parametric Equations
Existence Question
• Does f have a maximum (or minimum) value on S?
• The answer depends first of all on the set S. Consider on
f(x)=1/x on S = (0, ∞); it has neither a maximum value nor a
minimum value.
• On the other hand, the same function on S=[1,3] has the
maximum value of f(1)=1 and the minimum value of
f(3)=1/3.
• On S=(1,3), f has no maximum value, and the minimum
value is f(3)=1/3
 Calculus 2
Existence Question
• The answer also depends on
the type of function. Consider
the discontinues function g,
defined by

• On S = [1,3], g has no
maximum value (it gets
arbitrarily close to 2 but
never attains it). However, g
has the minimum g(2)=0.
 Calculus 2

Max-Min Existence Theorem

• If f is continuous on a closed interval [a,b], then f attains both a
maximum value and minimum value there.
• Note the key words in Theorem A; f is required to be continuous,
and the set S is required to be a closed interval.
 Calculus 2

Where do extreme values occur?

• Usually, the objective function will have an
interval I as its domain.
• Some of them contain their end points; some
do not.
• For instance I = [a,b], contains both its end
points; [a, b) contains only its left end point;
(a, b) contains neither end point
• Extreme values of functions defined on
closed intervals often occur at end points
 Calculus 2

Where do extreme values occur?

• If c is a point at which f’(c)=0, we call c a
stationary point.
• The name derives from the fact that at a
stationary point the graph of f levels off,
since the tangent line is horizontal.
• Extreme values often occur at a stationary
point.
 Calculus 2

Where do extreme values occur?

• Finally, if c is an interior point of I where f’
fails to exist, we call c a singular point.
• It is a point where the graph of f has a sharp
corner, a vertical tangent, or perhaps takes
a jump, or near where the graph wiggles very
badly.
• Extreme values can occur at singular points,
though in practical problems this is quite
rare.
 Calculus 2

Where do extreme values occur?

• Find the critical points of f(x)=-2x3+3x2 on [-1/2,2]
• The end points are -1/2 and 2. To find the stationary points,
we solve for x, obtaining 0 and 1. There are no singular
points. Thus, the critical points are -1/2,0,1, and 2.
 Calculus 2

Critical Point Theorem

Let f be defined on an interval I containing the point c. If f(c) is an
extreme value, then c must be a critical point, that is, either c is

i) An end point of I
ii) A stationary point of f; that is, a point where f’(c) = 0 or
iii) A singular point of f; that is a point where f’(c) does not exist
 Calculus 2

Critical Point Theorem

What are the Extreme Values?
In view of Theorems A and B, we can now state a very simple
procedure for finding the maximum value and minimum value of a
continuous function f on a closed interval I.
• Step 1: Find the critical points of f on I.
• Step 2: Evaluate f at each of these critical points. The largest of
these values is the
• maximum value; the smallest is the minimum value
 Calculus 2

Critical Point Theorem

Example
Find the maximum and minimum values of f (x) = x3 on [-2,2]
′ 2
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 1: 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) =3 𝑥
This is defined on (-2,2) and is zero only when x= 0 . The Critical points
are therefore, x = 0 and the end points x = -2 and x = 2.

Evaluating f at the critical points yields f(-2)= -8, f(0)=0 and f(2) = 8 .
Thus, the maximum value of f is 8 (attained at x = 2 ) and the minimum
is (attained at x= -2).
 Calculus 2

Critical Point Theorem

Example
Find the maximum and minimum values of f (x) = x3 on [-2,2]
′ 2
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 1: 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) =3 𝑥
This is defined on (-2,2) and is zero only when x= 0 . The Critical points
are therefore, x = 0 and the end points x = -2 and x = 2.

Evaluating f at the critical points yields f(-2)= -8, f(0)=0 and f(2) = 8 .
Thus, the maximum value of f is 8 (attained at x = 2 ) and the minimum
is (attained at x= -2).
 Calculus 2
Critical Point Theorem
Example
Find the maximum and minimum values of
f (x) = -2x3+3x2 on [-1/2,2]
′ 2
( )
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 1: 𝑓 𝑥 =−6 𝑥 +6 𝑥
This is defined on (-1/2,2) and is zero only when x= 0 and when x= 1 . The
Critical points are therefore, x = 0 , x=1 and the end points x = -2 and x = 2.

Evaluating f at the critical points yields f(-1/2)= 1, f(0)=0, f(1)=1 , and f(2) =
-4 . Thus, the maximum value of f is 1 (attained at x = -1/2 and x=1) and the
minimum is -4 (attained at x= 2).
Calculus 2
 Calculus 2
Critical Point Theorem
Example
Find the maximum and minimum values of
f (x) = x2/3 on an interval [-1,2]
1
′ 2 −3
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 1: 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑥
3
The derivative is never 0 except when x=0, so 0 is a critical point, as are the
end points -1 and 2.

Now
F(-1)= 1
F(0) = 0
F(2)=1.59
 Calculus 2
Critical Point Theorem
Example (197)
Find the maximum and minimum values of
f (x) = x+ 2 cos x on an interval [-π,2 π]
′
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 1: 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) =1− 2 sin 𝑥
 Calculus 2
Critical Point Theorem
Example (197)
Find the maximum and minimum values of
f (x) = x+ 2 cos x on an interval [-π,2 π]
′
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 1: 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) =1− 2 sin 𝑥
 Calculus 2
Antiderivatives
Most of the mathematical operations that we work with come in inverse
pairs:
• addition and subtraction, multiplication and division, and
exponentiation and root taking.
• In each case, the second operation undoes the first, and vice versa.
• If we want to solve equations involving derivatives we will need its
inverse, called antidifferentiation or integration.
 Calculus 2
Antiderivatives
• We call F an antiderivative of f on the interval I if F’(x) = f(x) on I, that is
, for all x in I.
• We said an antiderivative rather than the antiderivative in our definition.

• Example

3
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) =4 𝑥 𝑜𝑛(− ∞ , ∞)
 Calculus 2
Antiderivatives
• Is every antiderivative of f(x) =4x3 of the form F(x)=x4+C ?
• Theorems suggest that if two functions have the same derivative, they
must differ by a constant
• If a function f has an antiderivative, it will have a whole family of them,
and each member of this family can be obtained from one of them by the
addition of an appropriate constant.
 Calculus 2
Antiderivatives
Example
2
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡h𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) =𝑥 𝑜𝑛(− ∞ , ∞)

Notation for Antiderivatives

∫ 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥=𝑥 +𝐶
3 4 3
1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥= 3 𝑥
2
 Calculus 2
Antiderivatives
Example
2
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡h𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) =𝑥 𝑜𝑛(− ∞ , ∞)

Notation for Antiderivatives

∫ 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥=𝑥 +𝐶
3 4 3
1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥= 3 𝑥
2
 Calculus 2
Antiderivatives
Theorem A
 Calculus 2
Antiderivatives
Theorem A
Second, since no interval I is specified, the conclusion is understood to be
valid only on intervals on which xr is defined. In particular, we must exclude
any interval containing the origin if r<0.

Example
Find the general antiderivative of f(x)=x 4/3
 Calculus 2
Other Antiderivative Formulas
 Calculus 2
Indefinite Integral is a Linear Operator
• Let f and g have antiderivatives and let k be a
constant.
 Calculus 2
Indefinite Integral is a Linear Operator
 Calculus 2
Generalized Power Rule

To apply Theorem D, we must be able to recognize the functions g and g’ in the

integrand.

∫ sin 10
𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Calculus 2
Generalized Power Rule

Thus, the generalized power rule is just

the ordinary power rule applied to 6
𝑢
¿ ∫ 𝑢 2 𝑑𝑢=∫ 2[ +𝐶 ]
5
functions. But, in applying it, we must
always make sure that we have du to go 6
with ur.
6
𝑢6
(𝑥 +6𝑥)
3
¿− +2 𝐶 = +k
3 3
 Calculus 2
Generalized Power Rule

( )
11
1 𝑢
¿ +𝑐
2 11

( )
2 11
1 (𝑥 +4)
¿ ∫ ( 𝑥 +4 ) ∗ 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
10
2 ¿ +𝐾
22
2
1 10
¿ ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2
 Calculus 2
Generalized Power Rule 𝑥
∫ 10 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1
¿
𝑥 1 2𝑥
1 − ∫− 𝑑𝑥
2
∫ 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
2
10 − 𝑥
1 1
¿ ∫ ln|𝑥−𝑎|+𝐶 − ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑢
1
− ln |𝑢|+ 𝐶=ln |10 − 𝑥 |+𝐶
2
2
 Calculus 2
Generalized Power Rule

1
¿ ∫ (𝑥 −2¿) 𝑑𝑥+2∫ 𝑑𝑥 ¿
𝑥+1
2
𝑥 1
¿ − 2 𝑥 +2∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 +1
2
𝑥
¿ − 2 𝑥 +2 ln |𝑥 +1|+ 𝐶
2
 Calculus 2
Examples

∫ 𝑥 +𝜋
2

∫ 4𝑥 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
5 3

3 2
∫ 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
 Calculus 1
Introduction to Limits
Calculus is the study of Limits

Isaac Newton- Finding the area of a

circle using the polygon.

The area of the circle is the limit of the

areas the inscribed polygons as n
increases without bound.

39
 Calculus 1
Introduction to Limits
Calculus is the study of Limits
f(x)=x+5
Why or when to use calculus?

Differentiation and Integration

Find the area under the graph.

Find the slope of the graph.

40
 Calculus 1
Introduction to Limits
Differentiation and Integration
f(x)=x2
Find the area under the graph.

Find the slope of the graph.

41
 Calculus 1
Introduction to Limits
Differentiation and Integration
f(x)=x2
Find the area under the graph.

Find the slope of the graph.

42
 Calculus 1
Introduction to Limits
Differentiation and Integration
f(x)=x2
Find the area under the graph.

Find the slope of the graph.

43
 Calculus 2
Indefinite Integrals
So far, we have only explored Indefinite Integrals. They appear in the form
of

Riemman Sums
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4

Consider a function f defined on a closed interval [a, b]. It

may have both positive and negative values on the interval, and it does not
even need to be continuous
 Calculus 2
Indefinite Integrals
Consider a partition P of the interval [a,b] into n subintervals (not
necessarily of equal length) by means of points a=x 0<x1<x2<…..<xn=b

𝑛
𝑅 𝑝=∑ 𝑓 (𝑥 𝑖) ∆ 𝑥 𝑖
𝑖=1
 Calculus 2
Indefinite Integrals
A Riemann sum for f corresponding to the partition P.
A Riemann sum is interpreted as an algebraic sum of areas.
𝑛
𝑅 𝑝=∑ 𝑓 (𝑥 𝑖) ∆ 𝑥 𝑖
𝑖=1
 Calculus 2
Indefinite Integrals
• Evaluate the Riemann sum for f(x)=x2+1 on the interval [-1,2] using
the equally spaced partition points -1<-0.5<0<0.5<1<1.5<2, with the
sample point xibeing the mid point of the ith interval.
 Calculus 2
Indefinite Integrals
• Evaluate the Riemann sum for
• f(x)= (x+)(x-2)(x-4)=x3-5x2+2x+8
• On the interval [0,5] using the partition P with partition points
0<1.1<2<3.2<4<5 and the corresponding points x 1=0.5, x2=1.5, x3=2.5,
x4=3.6, and x5=5
 Calculus 2
Definition of definite Integrals
Let ||P|| , be called the norm of P, denote the length of the longest of the
subintervals of the partition P.

Definition of P
Let f be a function that is defined on the closed interval [a,b]. If
𝑛
lim ❑ ∑ 𝑓 (𝑥 𝑖 )∆ 𝑥 𝑖
||𝑃||→ 0 𝑖=1
Exists, we say f that is integrable on [a,b]. Moreover, called the definite integral of f from
a to b, is then given by
𝑏 𝑛

∫ 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥=||𝑃lim
||→ 0
∑ 𝑓 (𝑥 𝑖 ¿ ¿)∆ 𝑥 𝑖 ¿¿
𝑎 𝑖=1
 Calculus 2
Definition of the Definite Integral
• In our definition of we implicitly assumed that a<b. We remove that
restriction with the following definitions
 Calculus 2
Definition of the Definite Integral
• Finally, we point out that x is a dummy variable in the symbol
• By this we mean that x can be replaced by any other letter.
 Calculus 2
Definition of the Definite Integral
• Not every function is integrable on a closed interval [a,b]. For
example
• f(x)=
• 1 if x= 0
Integrability Theorem
If f is bounded on [a,b] and if it is continuous
there except at a finite number of points, then f
is integrable on [a,b]. In particular, if f is
continuous on the whole interval [a,b], it is
integrable on [a,b]
 Calculus 2
Definition of the Definite Integral
• As a consequence of this theorem, the following functions are
integrable on every closed interval [a,b].
• Polynomial Functions
• Sine and Cosine Functions
• Rational functions, provided that the interval [a,b] contains no points
where the denominator is 0
 Calculus 2
Calculating Definite Integral
• Knowing that a function is integrable allows us to calculate its
integral by using a regular partition and by picking the sample points
xi in any way that is convenient for us.

• Partition the interval [-2,3] into n equal subintervals, each of length

∆x=5/n. In each subinterval [xi-1,xi] use midpoint xi = xi as the sample
point.
Calculus 2
Calculus 2

Since P is a regular partition, ||P||->0 is

equivalent to n->∞
Calculus 2
 Calculus 2
The interval additive Property
• Consider two curved regions R1 and R2 in Figure below and let R = R1
U R2. It is clear that the areas satisfy
• A(R)= A(R1U R2) = A (R1) +A(R2)
• This suggests that :
 Calculus 2
The interval additive Property
• If f is integrable on an interval containing the points a,b, and c then:

• no matter what order of a,b, and c .

 Calculus 2
Examples