The document summarizes the evolution of computers from the first generation of vacuum tube computers like ENIAC to modern microprocessor-based computers. It describes how each generation brought improvements like increasing processor speed, decreasing component size, and increasing memory capacity. The development of transistors replaced vacuum tubes, integrated circuits allowed microelectronics, and microprocessors placed all CPU components on a single chip. Major computers and processors are discussed including ENIAC, IBM System/360, Intel 8086, 80386, and Itanium.
The document summarizes the evolution of computers from the first generation of vacuum tube computers like ENIAC to modern microprocessor-based computers. It describes how each generation brought improvements like increasing processor speed, decreasing component size, and increasing memory capacity. The development of transistors replaced vacuum tubes, integrated circuits allowed microelectronics, and microprocessors placed all CPU components on a single chip. Major computers and processors are discussed including ENIAC, IBM System/360, Intel 8086, 80386, and Itanium.
The document summarizes the evolution of computers from the first generation of vacuum tube computers like ENIAC to modern microprocessor-based computers. It describes how each generation brought improvements like increasing processor speed, decreasing component size, and increasing memory capacity. The development of transistors replaced vacuum tubes, integrated circuits allowed microelectronics, and microprocessors placed all CPU components on a single chip. Major computers and processors are discussed including ENIAC, IBM System/360, Intel 8086, 80386, and Itanium.
The document summarizes the evolution of computers from the first generation of vacuum tube computers like ENIAC to modern microprocessor-based computers. It describes how each generation brought improvements like increasing processor speed, decreasing component size, and increasing memory capacity. The development of transistors replaced vacuum tubes, integrated circuits allowed microelectronics, and microprocessors placed all CPU components on a single chip. Major computers and processors are discussed including ENIAC, IBM System/360, Intel 8086, 80386, and Itanium.
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Computer Organization &
Architecture
Lecture 2: Introduction II
Evolution of Computers
01/31/24 1 Evolution of Computers
The evolution of computers has been
characterized by: a) increasing processor speed b) decreasing component size c) increasing memory size d) increasing I/O capacity and speed
01/31/24 2 Evolution of Computers One factor responsible for great increase in processor speed is the shrinking size of microprocessor components; this reduces the distance between components and increase speed.
• A critical issue in computer system design is
balancing the performance of various elements, so that gains in performance in one area are not handicapped by a lag in other areas. 01/31/24 3 A Brief History of Computers The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was
world’s first general-purpose electronic digital computer. • Started to be built in 1943 and completed in 1946. • Designed to create ballistics tables for World War II but too late to be used in the war effort. • Its first task was to perform a series of complex calculations that were used to help determine the feasibility of the hydrogen bomb. • Used until 1955 01/31/24 4 The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes • ENIAC was an enormous machine weighing 30 tons occupying 1500 square feet of floor space containing more than 18,000 vacuum tubes. • When operating, it consumed 140 kilowatts of power. • It was capable of doing 5000 additions per second. 01/31/24 5 ENIAC
Vacuum Tubes 01/31/24 6 ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator
01/31/24 7 The von Neumann Machine • The first publication of the idea was in a 1945 proposal by von Neumann for a new computer, the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer). • In 1946, von Neumann and his colleagues began the design of a new stored program computer, referred to as the IAS computer, at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies. • The IAS computer, although not completed until 1952, is the prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers. • With rare exceptions, all of today’s computers have this same general structure, and are thus referred to as von Neumann machines. 01/31/24 8 Von Neumann and the IAS computer 01/31/24 9 The Von Neumann Machine The general structure
01/31/24 10 The von Neumann Machine • A main memory, which stores both data and instructions. • An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) capable of operating on binary data. • A control unit, which interprets the instructions in memory and causes them to be executed. • Input and output (I/O) equipment operated by the control unit.
01/31/24 11 01/31/24 12 The von Neumann Machine
• The control unit operates IAS by fetching
instructions from memory and executing them one at a time. Both control unit and ALU contain storage locations called registers.
01/31/24 13 • Registers are defined as:
• Memory buffer register (MBR): Contains a word to
be stored in memory or is used to receive a word form memory. • Memory address register (MAR): Specifies address in memory of the word to written from or read into MBR. • Instruction register (IR): Contains 8-bit opcode instruction being executed. • Instruction buffer register (IBR): Employed to hold temporarily the right hand instruction from a word in memory. 01/31/24 14 von Neumann Machine • Program counter (PC): Contains address of next instruction-pair to be fetched from memory.
• Accumulator (AC) and multiplier quotient (MQ):
Employed to hold temporarily operands and results of ALU operations.
IAS operates by repetitively performing an instruction cycle
which contains of two subcycles as fetch and execute cycles. • During fetch cycle, opcode of next instruction is loaded into instruction register (IR) and address portion is loaded into memory address register (MAR). • Once opcode is in IR, execution cycle is performed where data is moved or an operation is performed by arithmetic-logic unit (ALU). 01/31/24 15 The Second Generation: • Transistors The first major change in the electronic computer came with the replacement of the vacuum tube by the transistor. • The transistor is smaller, cheaper, and dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube but can be used in the same way as a vacuum tube to construct computers. • Unlike the vacuum tube, which requires wires, metal plates, a glass capsule, and a vacuum, the transistor is a solid-state device, made from silicon. • In 1947, transistors were developed at Bell Labs.
01/31/24 16 The Transistors
01/31/24 17 The 3rd Generation: Integrated Circuits • Throughout 1950s and early 1960, electronic equipment was composed largely of discrete components – transistors, resistors, capacitors and so on.
• In 1958 came the achievement that revolutionized
electronics and started the age of microelectronics: the invention of integrated circuits.
• It is the integrated circuit that defines third generation
of computers. 01/31/24 18 3rd Generation Computers Microelectronics
• Microelectronics means literally “small electronics”.
• The basic elements of a digital computer must
perform storage, movement, processing and control functions.
• Only two fundamental types of components are
required: gates and memory cells. 01/31/24 19 Microelectronics • A gate is a device that implements a simple Boolean or logical function, such as: • IF A AND B ARE TRUE THEN C IS TRUE • Such devices are called gates because they control data flow in much the same way that canal gates do.
01/31/24 20 Microelectronics • The memory cell is a device that can store one bit of data; that is, the device can be in one of two stable states at any time.
01/31/24 21 Microelectronics By interconnecting large numbers of these fundamental devices, we can construct a computer. We can relate this to our four basic functions as follows:
• Data storage: Provided by memory cells.
• Data processing: Provided by gates. • Data movement: Paths between components are used to move data from memory to memory and from memory through gates to memory. • Control: Paths between components can carry control signals 01/31/24 22 3rd Generation Systems: IBM System 360 • In 1964, IBM produced the first planned family of computer, System/360. • The family covered a wide range of performance and cost. • In 1970, IBM introduce its successor, S370 series • The System/370 line was replaced by the IBM S390 in the 1990s 01/31/24 23 IBM System 370-145
01/31/24 24 4th Generation: Microprocessors • In 1971, Intel developed its 4004 which was the first chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip: the microprocessor was born. • 4004 can add two 4-bit numbers.
• The next major step in the evolution of the
microprocessor was the introduction of Intel 8008 in 1972.
• In 1974, Intel 8080 which was the first general-
purpose microprocessor is introduced 01/31/24 25 Microprocessors • 16-bit microprocessors began to be developed and at the end of 1970s, a general-purpose 16-bit microprocessors appeared. One of these was the 8086. • Then, Bell Labs and Hewlett-Packard developed 32- bit, single-chip microprocessors. • Intel introduced its own 32-bit microprocessor, the 80386, in 1985. • Then, Intel produced a family of 64-bit microprocessors, called Itanium. In 2001, the first Itanium processor codenamed as Merced is released. 01/31/24 26 Microprocessors
Intel 8086 Intel 80386
Intel Itanium 7
01/31/24 27 Intel Processors In terms of market share, Intel has ranked as the number one maker of microprocessors for decades. It is worthwhile to list some of the evolution of the Intel product line:
• 8080 First general purpose microprocessor. An 8-bit machine
with an 8-bit data path to memory. • 8086 Much more powerful. 16-bit machine
• 80286 Extension to 8086.
• 80386 Intel’s first 32-bit machine. Support for multitasking,
meaning it could run multiple programs at the same time
01/31/24 28 Intel Processors • 80486 Sophisticated powerful cache and instruction pipelining (a processor organization in which processor consists of a number of stages, allowing multiple instructions to be executed concurrently).
• Pentium Introduce the use of superscalar techniques which
allows multiple instructions executed in parallel.
• Pentium Pro Increased superscalar organization.
• Pentium II Incorporated MMX technology which is designed
specifically to process graphics, video and audio data efficiently. 01/31/24 29 Intel Processors • Pentium III Incorporates additional floating point instructions for 3D graphics. • Pentium 4 Includes further floating point and multimedia enhancements. • Dual Core This is the first Intel x86 microprocessor with a dual core, referring to the implementation of two processors on a single chip. • Itanium Intel’s first processor to make use of 64-bit organization (x64 architecture).
