• Sincethe invention of the first electronic computer in the early 1940s,
there has been significant improvement especially in the physical size, cost and the processing speed of these computers. • One factor responsible for great increase in processor speed is the shrinking size of microprocessor components; This reduces the distance between components and increase speed.
•A critical issue in computer system design is balancing the
performance of various elements, so that gains in performance in one area are not handicapped by a lag in other areas. 1st Gen Computers (The Use of Vacuum Tubes)
• Themain material used in the first generation of computers was
vacuum tubes (electronic valves) for digital logic elements and memory. • ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was the world’s first general-purpose electronic digital computer. 1st Gen Computers (The Use of Vacuum Tubes)… • Features of ENIAC Started to be built in 1943 and completed in 1946. Designed to create ballistics tables for World War II but too late to be used in the war effort. Its first task was to perform a series of complex Its memory consisted of 20 accumulators, each capable of holding a 10- digit decimal number. It had to be programmed manually by setting switches and plugging and unplugging cables Measured 18 feet by 80 feet and weighed 30 tons. Slow in terms of processing speed and generate a lot of heat 1st Gen Computers (The Use of Vacuum Tubes)… • THE (JOHN) VON NEUMANN MACHINE The first publication of the Von Neumann Machine was in a 1945 proposal by a mathematician called John von Neumann for a new computer, the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer). In 1946, von Neumann and his colleagues began the design of a new stored program computer, referred to as the IAS computer, at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies. A fundamental design approach first implemented in the IAS computer is known as the stored-Program concept Both data and instructions are stored in the memory 1st Gen Computers (The Use of Vacuum Tubes)… • The IAS Structure The general structure of the IAS computer consisted of: 1. A main memory, which stores both data and instructions 2. An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) capable of operating on binary data 3. A control unit, which interprets the instructions in memory and causes them to be executed 4. Input–output (I/O) equipment operated by the control unit With rare exceptions, all of today’s computers have this same general structure, and are thus referred to as von Neumann machines. 1st Gen Computers (The Use of Vacuum Tubes)…
• The IAS Structure
1st Gen Computers (The Use of Vacuum Tubes)… • Features of the von Neumann Architecture (IAS) The memory of the IAS consists of 4,096 storage locations, called words, of 40 binary digits (bits) each Both data and instructions are stored in the memory Numbers are represented in binary form, and each instruction was a binary code. Each number is represented by a sign bit and a 39-bit value. A word may alternatively contain two 20-bit instructions, with each instruction consisting of an 8-bit operation code (opcode) specifying the operation to be performed and a 12-bit address designating one of the words in memory Execution occurs in a sequential fashion (unless explicitly modified) from one instruction to the next. 1st Gen Computers (The Use of Vacuum Tubes)…
• IAS Memory Format
1st Gen Computers (The Use of Vacuum Tubes)… • Features of the von Neumann Architecture (IAS) The control unit operates the IAS by fetching instructions from memory for execution one at a time. It could be seen from the IAS structure that both the control unit (or Central Control) and the ALU contain storage (Central Arithmetical) locations, called registers. 1st Gen Computers (The Use of Vacuum Tubes)… Memory Buffer Register (MBR): Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit, or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit. Memory Address Register (MAR): Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from or read into the MBR. Instruction Register (IR): Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed. Instruction Buffer Register (IBR): Employed to hold temporarily the right-hand instruction from a word in memory. Program counter (PC): Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched from memory. Accumulator (AC) and multiplier quotient (MQ): Employed to hold temporarily operands and results of ALU operations. 1st Gen Computers (The Use of Vacuum Tubes)… The IAS operates by repetitively performing an instruction cycle Each instruction cycle consists of two sub cycles known as fetch and execute cycles. During the fetch cycle, the opcode of the next instruction is loaded into the IR and the address portion is loaded into the MAR. This instruction may be taken from the IBR, or it can be obtained from memory by loading a word into the MBR, and then down to the IBR, IR, and MAR. Once the opcode is in the IR, the execute cycle is performed. Control circuitry interprets the opcode and executes the instruction by sending out the appropriate control signals to cause data to be moved or an operation to be performed by the ALU. 1st Gen Computers (The Use of Vacuum Tubes)… First commercial computers In 1950, UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) which was commissioned by Bureau of Census was the first successful commercial computer. The UNIVAC II, which had greater memory capacity and higher performance than the UNIVAC I, was delivered in the late 1950s. It was first example of backward compatibility. 2nd Gen Computers (The Use of Transistors) The vacuum tube used in the first generation was replaced with transistors. A single, self-contained transistor is called a discrete component The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 and by the 1950s had launched an electronic revolution. These transistors were much smaller in size and more reliable as compared to the vacuum tubes. The second generation of computers were much smaller in physical size as compared to the first-generation computers. They were much faster in terms of processing speed. Less expensive and also generated less heat. 2nd Gen Computers (The Use of Transistors) Unlike the vacuum tube, which requires wires, metal plates, a glass capsule, and a vacuum, the transistor is a solid-state device, made from silicon. The second generation saw the introduction of more complex arithmetic and logic units and control units, the use of high-level programming languages (such as COBOL - Common Business- Oriented Language and FORTRAN - Formula Translator), and the provision of system software with the computer. The IBM 7094 [BELL71] was a typical 2nd generation computer 3rd Generation Computers (The Use of Integrated Circuits - ICs) In 1958 came the achievement that revolutionized electronics and started the era of microelectronics: the invention of the integrated circuit Microelectronics means, literally, “small electronics.” Transistors were replaced with Integrated Circuits (ICs, semiconductor devices with several transistors built into one physical component) The first ICs were based on small-scale integration (SSI) circuits, which had around 10 devices per circuit Featured Computers includes IBM System/360 and the DEC PDP-8 3rd Generation Computers (The Use of Integrated Circuits - ICs) The basic elements of a digital computer require only two fundamental types of components, namely, gates and memory cells A gate is a device that implements a simple Boolean or logical function. E.g., an OR gate with inputs A and B and output C implements the expression IF A OR B IS TRUE THEN C IS TRUE. The memory cell is a device that can store 1 bit of data; that is, the device can be in one of two stable states at any time. By interconnecting large numbers of gates and memory cells, we can construct a computer 3rd Generation Computers (The Use of Integrated Circuits - ICs) Gordon Moore’s Law Moore observed that the number of transistors that could be put on a single chip was doubling every year, and correctly predicted that this pace would continue into the near future. And truly, the pace continued year after year and decade after decade However, the pace slowed to a doubling every 18 months (about 2years) in the 1970s but has sustained that rate ever since. 3rd Generation Computers (The Use of Integrated Circuits - ICs) Gordon Moore’s Law 4th Generation Computers (Semiconductor memory and microprocessors) Technically speaking these are the modern-day computers. Made of Very Large Integrated Circuits (VLICs). The VLICs (100,000 devices per chip) ensured that millions of components could be fit into a small chip while current ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) chips can contain more than one billion components. Two of the most important of developments in later generations were: Semiconductor Memory and Microprocessors 4th Generation Computers (Semiconductor memory and microprocessors) Semiconductor Memory Semiconductors were found to be used to construct memories. In 1970, Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor memory. This chip could hold 256 bits of memory. It took only 70 billionths of a second to read a bit. 4th Generation Computers (Semiconductor memory and microprocessors) Microprocessors Thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. Example: the Intel 4004 chip developed in 1971 IBM 5150 or IBM PC for the home user, by IBM in 1981 Macintosh, by Apple in 1984 Networks and Internet came into the scene UI, mouse and handheld devices also came into being 5th Generation Computers (Artificial Intelligence - AI) Still in development, with some applications like voice recognition The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality The goal of the fifth generation is to develop computers that can respond to natural language of man and with the ability to learn and self-organized. Watch out for the power of Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology The (Major) Evolution of the Intel Processors In terms of market share, Intel is ranked as the number one maker of microprocessors for decades. Intel 4004 processor was the first chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip The birth of microprocessor was born (1971). 4-bit microprocessor Intel 8008 (in 1972) First 8-bit microprocessor Almost twice as complex as the 4004 for specific applications. The (Major) Evolution of the Intel Processors Intel 8080 First general-purpose microprocessor. An 8-bit machine with an 8-bit data path to memory. Used in the first personal computer, the Altair. Intel 8086 A far more powerful 16-bit machine. Was used in IBM’s first personal computer The first appearance of the x86 architecture Intel 80286 Extension of the 8086, enabled addressing a 16-MB memory instead of just 1 MB. The (Major) Evolution of the Intel Processors Intel 80386 Intel’s first 32-bit machine. First intel processor to support multitasking Could run multiple programs at the same time Intel 80486 Offers a built-in math co-processor, offloading complex math operations from main CPU. Pentium Introduction of the use of superscalar techniques which allows multiple instructions to execute in parallel The (Major) Evolution of the Intel Processors Pentium Pro Aggressive use of register renaming, branch prediction, data flow analysis, and speculative execution Pentium II Incorporated intel MMX technology which is designed specifically to process graphics, video and audio data efficiently. Pentium III Incorporates additional floating-point instructions for 3D graphics Typical applications are digital signal processing and graphics processing Pentium 4 Additional floating-point and other enhancements for multimedia The (Major) Evolution of the Intel Processors Core Intel’s first x86 dual core microprocessor, referring to the implementation of two cores on a single chip. Core 2 (and the Itanium) The Core 2 extends the Core architecture to 64 bits, with Core 2 Quad providing four cores on a single chip. Embedded Systems Refers to the use of electronics and software within a product, as opposed to a general-purpose computer, such as a laptop or desktop system. Examples include cell phones, digital cameras, traffic light, calculators, microwave ovens, home security systems, washing machines, lighting systems, thermostats, printers Embedded Systems Embedded systems often interact (sense, manipulate, and communicate) with external world through sensors and actuators and hence are typically reactive systems. A reactive system is in continual interaction with the environment and executes at a pace determined by that environment The Internet of Things (IoT) The Internet of things (IoT) is a term that refers to the expanding interconnection of smart devices, ranging from appliances to tiny sensors. IoT enables new forms of communication between people and things (everyday gadgets), and between things themselves Embedded appliances, such as high-resolution video security cameras, video VoIP phones, are IoT devices, and they require high-bandwidth streaming capabilities. Special OS like TinyOS is, widely used in such embedded systems (wireless sensor networks.). Normal OS like Linux, Mac and Windows also have embedded versions for such devices. Reading Assignment Application Processors versus Dedicated Processors ARM Architecture ARM-Instruction Set Architecture ARM Products CLOUD COMPUTING
Refers to a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network
access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction. CLOUD COMPUTING
Apple’s iCloud was launched in 2012 and had 20 million users within a week of launch. Evernote, the cloud-based notetaking and archiving service, launched in 2008, approached 100 million users in less than 6 years. It is time to go cloud Why Choosing Cloud (Benefits)?
1. Professional security management
2. Professional network management 3. No need to hassle setting up a database system 4. No need acquiring the hardware you need 5. System maintenance, and backing up are outsourced 6. Economies of scale Cloud networking
Refers to the networks and network management functionality that must
be in place to enable cloud It is the collection of network capabilities required to access a cloud including making use of specialized services over the Internet, linking enterprise data centers to a cloud, and using firewalls and other network security devices at critical points to enforce access security policies computing Cloud storage
A subset of cloud computing
Consists of database storage and database applications hosted remotely on cloud servers. Cloud Services
A cloud service provider (CSP) maintains computing and data storage
resources that are available over the Internet or private networks. Customers can rent a portion of these resources as needed. Three main models of cloud service, SaaS PaaS IaaS Cloud Services
Software As A Service (SAAS)
SaaS cloud provides service to customers in the form of software, specifically application software, running on and accessible in the cloud. Example is Gmail Platform As A Service (PAAS) PaaS cloud provides service to customers in the form of a platform on which the customer’s applications can run. PaaS is an operating system in the cloud. Example is Google App Engine Cloud Services
Infrastructure As A Service (IAAS)
With IaaS, the customer has access to the underlying cloud infrastructure. IaaS provides virtual machines and other abstracted hardware and operating systems, which may be controlled through a service application programming interface (API). IaaS offers the customer processing, storage, networks, and other fundamental computing resources so that the customer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. Cloud Computing Architecture T for Thanks
