MODULE 2 MORAL AGENT

LESSON 2 ETHICS AND CULTURE

OBJECTIVES
Culture in moral behavior
🢝 Be able to define culture and its role in moral behavior
🢝 Be able to define cultural relativism
🢝 Be able to understand the advantages of cultural relativism and the dangers of holding this viewpoint
🢝 Be able to explain why universal values are necessary for survival
🢝 Be able to distinguish Asian and Filipino understanding of moral behavior in terms of strengths and
weaknesses
The moral agent: Developing virtue as a habit
🢝 Be able to understand how is moral character developed
Moral development
🢝 Be able to define the stages of moral development and
🢝 Be able to understand on how do we get to the highest level, conscience-based moral decision
PART 1: ETHICS AND CULTURE
YOU NEED TO KNOW
Discuss among yourself the meaning of the following terms
⮚ SYMBOLS
⮚ LANGUAGE
⮚ BELIEFS
⮚ VALUES and
⮚ NORMS
ACTIVITY 1
Cite one Filipino culture then discuss how this particular culture formed a positive
Filipino behavior.
On the other hand, discuss how this particular Filipino culture produced a negative
attitude.
Make your decision as insightful as possible by having or showing an accurate and
deep understanding; perceptive.
WHAT IS CULTURE?
Culture is a complex phenomenon.
It contains nearly all aspects of shared human experiences
Is what gives a particular community its unity and identity
It encompasses way of life, practices, worldviews, religious rites, festivals, belief
systems as well as oral and written literatures.
It provides the fundamental norms for the practices and decision-making processes
of the members of these traditional communities just as ethics serves as a concrete
manifestation of cultural peculiarities.
Culture and ethics, however, do not always blend harmoniously.
HOW DOES CULTURE AFFECT
HUMAN BEHAVIOR?
❖ Since human beings are naturally social creatures, we as people, are also naturally drawn to
participate in culture.
❖ People want to belong, to be accepted by peers.
❖ We also need protection from danger.
❖ Being part of social group not only feeds our need to be accepted, it also increases the human
being’s chances to survive.
❖ Therefore, because of the safety in numbers that being part of a group provides, human
beings learned to modify behaviors to match that which their cultural group deem acceptable.
❖ Yet, not all is well with culture’s power and control over people.
❖ Plato worried about the idols and ideologies of his day and specially about the power of the
public to corrupt a young person’s mind.
THE REPUBLIC
“Whenever the populace crowds together at any public gathering, in the Assembly,
the law-courts, the theater, or the camp and sits there clamoring its approval and
disapproval, both alike excessive, of whatever is being said or done; booing and
clapping till the rocks ring and the whole palace redoubles the noise of their
applause and outcries. In such a scene, what do you suppose will be a young man’s
state of mind? What sort of private instruction will have given him the strength to
hold out against the force of such a man as they are. And I have said nothing of the
most powerful engines of persuasion which the masters in this school of wisdom
bring to bear when words have no effect. As you know, they punish the recalcitrant
with disenfranchisement, fines and death.”
Plato’s Republic, trans. By FM Cornford, 1996
This power and control on people also did not sit well
with German Philosopher and father of Communism
Karl Marx.
According to Marx, culture served to justify inequality
because the ruling class or bourgeoisie produce a
culture that promotes their interest while repressing the
interest of the proletariat, in other words, the ruling
class determines what is right and wrong while rest
merely follow.
5 BASIC ELEMENTS OF
CULTURE
SYMBOLS – symbols can be anything that a group of people find meaningful.
🢝 In religious groups, the CROSS is a symbol for CHRISTIANITY while the
CRESCENT is for ISLAM

LANGUAGE – is a complex symbol system that enabled human beings to

communicate either verbally or through writing
🢝 Ilocano, Bisaya, Tagalog and several other native languages were already spoken in
pre-colonial Philippines.
🢝 Their ancient script or writing called Baybayin had characters, and each character
represented a complete syllable (Lewis, 2015)
5 BASIC ELEMENTS OF
CULTURE
BELIEFS – are assumptions or convictions held to be true by an individual or a group of
people. These assumptions/convictions could be about events, people or things
🢝 An ancient civilizations attributed events to spirit and gods. (superstitious beliefs)
🢝 However, when people started to think critically and scientific research flourished ,
events are now explained differently.
🢝 Therefore, this shows that beliefs change through time

VALUES – are culturally acceptable standards of behavior. It is what a person considers

important or beneficial in life.
🢝 In pre-colonial Philippines there were evidences that women were equally valued and
held central roles in society just as did the men (Perez, 2013)
🢝 In contrast to Spanish colonizers however, who valued woman mainly as domestic
caretakers.
5 BASIC ELEMENTS OF
CULTURE
NORM – is an informal guideline by a particular group of people or social unit
about what us considered normal or correct/incorrect social behavior.
🢝 The Filipino norm in relating to other people is to get along well with others, even
with complete strangers. (Pakikisama)
HOW DOES CULTURE DEFINE
MORAL BEHAVIOR?
According to Pekarsky, 1998, in Plato’s famous philosophical work “THE
REPUBLIC” he cited 3 critical elements that jointly influence the human person’s
moral development.
Let us review Plato’s work:
🢝 Whenever the populace crowds together at any public gathering, in the Assembly, the law-courts, the
theater, or the camp and sits there clamoring its approval and disapproval, both alike excessive, of
whatever is being said or done; booing and clapping till the rocks ring and the whole palace
redoubles the noise of their applause and outcries. In such a scene, what do you suppose will be a
young man’s state of mind? What sort of private instruction will have given him the strength to hold
out against the force of such a man as they are. And I have said nothing of the most powerful engines
of persuasion which the masters in this school of wisdom bring to bear when words have no effect. As
you know, they punish the recalcitrant with disenfranchisement, fines and death.”
🢝 Plato’s Republic, trans. By FM Cornford, 1996
3 CRITICAL ELEMENTS THAT JOINTLY
INFLUENCE THE HUMAN PERSON’S
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
❖Native traits ( or what we might call genetic
characteristics)
❖Early childhood experience and
❖One’s cultural surroundings
Plato implied that if a person’s cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable
norms it would lead the person to behave much better and quell undesirable conduct.
The power of culture over an individual is more potent in children because they do
not have any pre-existing values.
The child’s cultural surrounding should “express the image of a noble character”
That role models should display the conduct of a proper human being because the
behavior of the adults serves as the child’s moral foundation as he grows and
develops (Cornford, 1966; Pekarsky, 1998)
ACTIVITY 2
Tell your classmates what you think:

How did you community influence your behavior?

Cite one culture in your community and reflect on a particular behavior you have.
In what way can culture negative affect the development of a person’s moral
behavior?
PART 2: CULTURAL
RELATIVISM
ACTIVITY 3
As a group , talk about cultural similarities and differences
between Filipinos and other nations.
Then cite some scene that shows these cultural differences.
In some countries, children are allowed to marry but in most countries this is
unacceptable. Divorce is not allowed in the Philippines, but Filipino Muslim men
and woman can legally divorce their respective wife or husband.
Why are there so many differences in societies on what is acceptable or not?
Is it true that different cultures have radically different moral codes?
Are there any values that all societies commonly have?
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
❖ Explains why one behavior or practice is completely acceptable by a particular
group of people, while it is taboo in another.
❖ It refers to an idea that values, knowledge and behavior of people must be
understood within its own cultural context and not by the standards of other
cultures.
❖ Therefore, all moral and ethical standards (or the judgement of what is right or
wrong) is valid and there is not “one” standards that is “better” among all other.
THE ELEMENTS OD MORAL
PHILOSOPHY
BY DR. JAMES RACHELS (1943-2003)

Dr. James Rachels, Philosopher and professor laid out 5 claims of cultural relativists
as to why right or wrong is only a matter of cultural standards.
1. The different societies have different moral codes
2. The moral code of a society determines what is right od wrong. There is no
objective standard considered better than others.
3. There are no universal moral truths.
4. The moral code of a particular society has no special status. It is but one among
many
5. It is arrogant for one culture to judge another culture. There should be tolerance
among cultures
THE ADVANTAGES AND DANGERS
OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Dr. Rachels identified 2 positive lesson we can learn from cultural relativism:
1. It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational standard
2. It teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the
truth

▪ Many of our practices are relevant only to our community.

▪ This implies our moral views are a reflection of our society’s prejudice.
▪ Cultural relativism makes us understand that what we think as truth may actually
be just the result of cultural conditioning.
THE ADVANTAGES AND DANGERS
OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
The danger of Cultural Relativism:
1. We cannot callout societal practices that promote harm.
🢝 If cultural relativism is true, then we should not condemn what Hitler and the Nazis did against
the Jews, Apartheid in South Africa, or any form of maltreatment, damage, injury, or destruction
that one community inflicts upon anyone of anything

2. We cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful practice

🢝 This implies that to decide whether your action is right or wrong all you need to do is check
whether your action is in accordance with the standards of YOUR society.
🢝 If your actions are in line with your culture, then you have done nothing wrong – even though your
actions were harmful.
🢝 After all, if it is true that you cannot criticize other cultures, then all the more can you not criticize
your own culture since people in your group accept it as a way of life.
THE ADVANTAGES AND DANGERS
OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Cont. The danger of Cultural Relativism:
3. The idea of social progress becomes doubtful
• progress means replacing something old with something better
• However, cultural relativism is to be followed, by what standards do we say that a
society has become better?
• The idea of social reform is now eradicated because we are prohibited from
judging one society as better over others.
ACTIVITY 4
Watch a special report from ABC News “White Supremacist
Moves into Town”
This person’s actions are consistent with his cultural belief that
white people are superior.
Would cultural relativist be correct in maintaining that nobody has
the moral basis to complain about the white supremacist’s actions
because he was just following what he believed was right?
PART 3: UNIVERSAL VALUES
ACTIVITY 5
Discuss the possible results if respect for
human life and telling the truth are not
respected.
WHY THERE ARE UNIVERSAL
VALUES?
The dangers that cultural relativism present led thinkers to reject cultural relativism because it
is implausible.
The empirical basis of cultural relativism is that cultures are dramatically different in its views
of what is right or wrong.
However, when it comes to important moral issues, there are 3 values that are universal
(Rachels, 2004)

3 Universal values shared by all cultures:

1. Caring for the young
2. Murder is wrong and
3. Tell the truth
The theoretical point here is that “there are some moral rules that all societies will have in
common, because those rules are necessary for society to survive”.
Imagine if human beings do not care for their young.
Homo sapiens will eventually be an extinct species.
In the same manner, we will eventually be wiped out too if people were free to kill other people.
Moreover, what kind of society will it be if the presumption of everyone’s statement is that it is a
lie?
What reason do you have to pay attention to anyone?
If lying is our way of life, how can you believe what your teacher is teaching?
What is the use of having a teacher in the first place?
What is the use of talking to each other at all?
SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
In the Philippines, one moral argument against the RH Law is that it violates
universal human rights and values such as the right to life and health of children. On
the other hand, proponents of the Law assert that family planning and sexual
education consistent with one’s own beliefs and moral convictions is exercising
one’s freedom to choose.
If the basis of universal value is true and taking into consideration our social
problems due to overpopulation, what is you moral stand on the debate about having
a comprehensive reproductive health program in the Philippines?
PART 4: THE FILIPINO WAY
QUALITIES OF THE FILIPINO
MORAL IDENTITY
Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western Cultures.
The beliefs and traditions of pre-colonial Philippines was mainly indigenous Malay
heritage (Baringer, 2006)
Then the Spanish colonized the island and the Hispanic culture and this is primarily
manifested by the wide use of the English language in the Philippines today.
It was from these influences that formed the Filipino character.
The brief occupation of the British and the Japanese however had no cultural
influence in the Philippines at all.
ROOTED FACTORS OF THE STRENGTHS
AND WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO
CHARACTER BY: DR. PATRICIA B. LICUNAN
1. The home environment
2. The social environment
3. Culture and language
4. History
5. The educational system
6. Religion
7. The economic environment
8. The political environment
9. Mass media and
10. Leadership and role models
THE HOME AND SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT
Filipino children are taught to value family and give it primary importance.
The Filipino social environment is characterized by depending on one another to
survive.
This dependence on relationships and the struggle for survival make Filipino groups
oriented. (1994)
CULTURE AND LANGUAGE
Filipino culture depict openness to foreign elements with no basic consciousness of
our cultural core.
The Filipino colonial mentality such as the importance of the English language in
our educational system, the wider following of Hollywood movies, foreign soap
operas/TV shows and foreign songs/singers over Filipino movies, shows, and music
is a colonial influences.
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
The Philippine educational system is also instrument in molding the strengths and
weaknesses of the Filipino character. Schools are highly authoritarian.
Early on, children learn that well- behaved and obedient students are praised and
rewarded. This teaches passivity and conformity.
RELIGION
The Filipino is also religious. Religion taught us optimism and resilience. However,
it also instilled in us a fatalistic attitude.
Since religious communities are also highly authoritarian, this further reinforced our
being passive and conformist
ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
ENVIRONMENT
Several Filipinos are rooted in our economic environment. The hard life drove
Filipinos to work hard and take risks, such as leaving their families to work abroad.
This further developed our ability to survive. Unfortunately, our political
environment and government structures and systems are fraught with problems.
For instance, the fact that political power is mainly in the hands of the elite and the
absence of a strong government presence enhanced the Filipinos’ already extreme
family centeredness.
The economic and political environment are among the elements that developed the
culture of corruption in the Philippines.
MASS MEDIA
What did you notice with the ads, the music, the movies, fashion, etc. shown on TV,
aired over the radio, printed in the newspapers/magazines or went viral online?
These were greatly based on American/Korean pop culture.
The emphasis on the superiority of an imported brand or product through hmass
media is, in fact, part of Filipino’s daily life
LEADERS AND ROLE MODELS
Filipinos highly respect authority.
Any persons with authority is looked up to. Thus, when our leaders violate the law
and when there is lack of accountability for leaders who break the law, the Filipino
mindset is hugely affected in a negative way.
STRENGTHS OF THE FILIPINO
CHARACTER
The strong aspect of the Filipino character are:
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
2. Family orientation
3. Joy and humor
4. Flexibility, adaptability and creativity
5. Hard work and industry
6. Faith and religiosity
7. Ability to survive
PAKIKIPAGKAPWA-TAO
Is demonstrated in the Filipino’s openness, helpfulness, and generosity; in the
practice of bayanihan or mutual assistance; and the famous Filipino hospitality
Filipinos also possess a genuine love for family. This is not just for one’s spouse and
children but also to parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins (even the distant
ones) and even to ceremonial relatives.
FAMILY ORIENTATION
This love is shown through giving honor and respect to parents and elders, care for
the children, generosity towards kin, and the personal sacrifices that a Filipino
endures for the welfare of the family (Manauat,2005)
This strong family orientation gave Filipinos a sense of belonging and security
JOY AND HUMOR
FLEXIBILITY , ADAPTABILITY AND
CREATIVITY
Filipinos are cheerful and fun loving.
Our various fiestas and social gatherings demonstrates the Filipinos joy and humor.
We can laugh at those we love and hate and can make jokes about our good and bad
fortune.
Even in the most trying times, Filipinos will always find a reason to smile or laugh
This pleasant disposition contributed to our ability to overcome life’s challenges.
Filipinos are also tremendous in adjusting and adapting to any circumstances.
We can improvise and make use of whatever is at hand to create and produce.
Filipinos flexibility, adaptability and creativity are reasons why many thrive in various
part of the world.
HARD WORK AND INDUSTRY
FAITH AND RELIGIOSITY
This trait is most noticeable in our willingness to take risks and work in other
countries.
Filipinos also values faith and religiosity. This can be related to our bahala na
mindset.
There is actually positive side to this fatalistic trait.
For Filipinos the bahala na attitude could serve as a”kickstarter” or a “pampalakas
loob” to move him into action (Gripaldo, 2005)
All these positive Filipino traits mentioned contributed to our ability to survive.
The salawikain or proverb: “matutong mamaluktot habang maikli ang kumot” aptly
depict our survival instinct.
We can endure, make do, get by on so little while looking forward to the continuing
of better days.
This traits is the reason why Filipinos continue to carry on even through our harsh
economic and social circumstances.
WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO
CHARACTER
Pointing out on the weaknesses of the Filipino character will enable the Filipinos to identify the
areas that needs improvement in order to grow and develop as a person. An informed and
improved Filipino will also result in a stronger and more progressive nation.
Generally, these weaknesses are:
1. Extreme Personalism
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness
3. Lack of Discipline
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative
5. Colonial Mentality
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome
7. Lack of Self-analysis and Self-reflection
ACTIVITY 6
Tell your classmates what you think:
What positive Filipino trait can you most relate to how has the trait help you become
a better person?

Think about a personal negative experience.

Analyze how this was rooted in Filipino qualities, and from hindsight how would you
have done things differently.
PART 5: HOW IS MORAL
CHARACTER DEVELOP
PRE DISCUSSION
Let us watch a video presentation about the four beginning of the Confucian
tradition and Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=tUhGRh4vdb8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=PrvtOWEXDIQ
WHAT IS MORAL CHARACTER?
First let us take the most basic definition of the terms moral, character and moral
character.
MORAL – is concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior or the
goodness and badness of the human character.
CHARACTER – is the mental or moral qualities distinct to an individual
(Webster,2017)
Philosophy character usually denotes to the moral dimension of a person
MORAL CHARACTER – is the existence (or lack of) virtues such as integrity,
courage, fortitude, honest, and loyalty.
MORAL CHARACTER AS
DISPOSITION
MORAL CHARACTERS are those dispositions or the tendency to act or think in a
particular way for which a person can be held morally responsible.
Therefore, Moral character traits are rational, informed, stable and reliable
dispositions
What do the great ancient minds
think about moral character?
PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ON
MORAL CHARACTER
CONFUCIAN TRADITIONS
For Confucian traditions moral development was attributed to “four beginnings”
were considered as seed of human personality that will naturally unfold to become
human activities
Confucian perception of personality meant an achieved state of moral excellence
(Ammes,1997) a contrary to Western understanding of personality as a given human
condition.
Therefore, this is the concept that every person is born with four beginnings but
each of these do not yet capture the concept of self. When the four beginnings are
put together, it may be perceived in Western understanding as the “pre-self” or
“potential self” (Klemme,WEB)
THE FOUR BEGINNINGS IN
CONFUCIAN TRADITIONS ARE:
1. The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen
2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to
Yi
3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li
4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to Zhi.
THE FOUR BEGINNINGS IN
CONFUCIAN TRADITIONS ARE
JEN means goodwill, sympathy towards others, and generosity
YI means righteousness and the respect of duty, that is, respect
your position as guardian towards nature and humanity
LI deals with outward behavior such as etiquette, customs and
rituals
ZHI means wisdom, and this wisdom is a product of practicing
Jen, Yen, and Li in one’s life (Liu, 2002)
ARISTOTLE AND VIRTUE
ETHICS
Virtue ethics is an approach that reduces the emphasis on rules, consequences and
particular acts.
Virtues ethics focus on the quality of the person.
Although action and consequences are significant, virtue ethics does not focus on
whether an action is right or wrong; nor on whether the consequences are good or
bad.
It is more concerned with whether the person is acting as a virtuous person should
act in the situation.
In ancient Western philosophy, Aristotle’s discussion on moral character, particularly
virtue, is the most influential view on the topic.
ARISTOTLE AND VIRTUE
ETHICS
Aristotle argued that each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if a person is focused
on being a good person the right actions will follow effortlessly and you will do good things.
What does it mean to be a good person?
Aristotle believed that humans have an essence.
He called this essence proper functioning where everything has a function and the thing that
performs as intended is called good when it is able to fulfill this function.
Aside from its natural instinct, a person according to Aristotle is also a “rational animal” and a
“social animal”
Therefore, using reason to live and get along with other people is also the human person’s
function.
A “good” person is one who fulfills all these functions.
WHAT DO WE MEAN TO BE
VIRTUOUS?
WHAT DO WE MEAN TO BE
VIRTUOUS?
VIRTUE for the Greek is equivalent to EXCELLENCE.
A man has virtue as a flautist, for instance, if he plays the flute well, since playing
the flute is the distinctive activity of a flautist.
A person of virtue is someone who performs the distinctive activity of being a
human well.
The principle of being virtuous is called the “Doctrine of the Golden Mean” – the
moral behavior is the one that is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (or what he
called vices).
When he said “extreme behavior”, it meant the act was either excessive or deficient.
WHAT DO WE MEAN TO BE
VIRTUOUS?
Aristotelian view eating is a human function as demanded by nature.
When a person overeats (gluttony), this behavior is excessive; while a person who
diets too much (starvation) is deficient.
Therefore, the virtue when eating is temperance or eat just the right amount at all
times to keep your body nourished and healthy.
Temperance, is the golden mean between gluttony and starvation.
Aristotle understood virtue as a character that can be developed and that this can be
developed by practicing the golden mean (the doctrine of the Mean). In time, good
behavior will come naturally.
It is important to note that Aristotle’s Doctrine of Golden Mean does not claim that
you behave in moderately at all times; such as when you get angry, you should only
ever be “moderately” angry.
In Aristotle’s philosophy, you should be as angry as the situation demands which can
be very angry or only slightly irritated.
He concluded that virtue is a choice of behaving the right way, at the right time, with
the right people and that this choice is determined by rational principle and practical
wisdom.(Lancewing, 2015)
The virtuous man is the kind of man who is able to satisfy both inclinations and
rational desires because his inclinations and desires are aligned.

The virtuous man wants to do what is good and does it because he derives pleasure
from choosing and doing what is moral.
WHY DO WE HAVE TO BE
VIRTUOUS?
The reason according to virtue ethics, s Eudaimonia.
Generally, eudaimonia can be translated as “happiness”, “well-being” or the “good
life” and that this is the goal of human life.
Aristotle believed that to achieve eudaimonia you need to practice the virtues in your
everyday activity all through your life.
ACTIVITY 7
Here is a dilemma. Read the story and then reflect and analyse the situation.
There are questions provided to guide your reflection.
Joe is a fourteen-year-old boy who wanted to go to camp very much. His father
promised him he could go if he saved up the money for it himself. So Joe worked
hard at his paper route and saved up the forty dollars it costs to go to camp, and a
little more besides. However, just before camp was going to start, his father changed
his mind. Some of his friends decided to go on a special fishing trip, and Joe’s father
was short of the money it would cost. Therefore, he told Joe to give him the money
he had saved from the paper route. Joe did not want to give up going to camp, so he
thinks of refusing to give his father the money.
GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. Should Joe refuse to give his father the money? Why or why not?
2. Does the father have the right to tell Joe to give him the money? Why or why not?
3. Does giving the money have anything to do with being a good son? Why or why not?
4. Is the fact that Joe earned the money himself important is this situation? Justify your answer
5. The father promised Joe he could go to camp if he earned the money. Is the fact that the father promised the most
important thing in the situation? Why or why not?
6. In general, why should a promise kept?
7. Is it important to keep a promise to someone you do not know well and probably will not see again? Justify your
answer.
8. What do you think is the most important thing a father should be concerned about in his relationship to his son?
9. In general, what should be the authority of a father over his son?
10. What do you think is the most important thing a son should be concerned about in his relationship to his father?
11. In thinking back over the dilemma, what would you say is the most responsible thing for Joe to do in this situation?
Why?
PART 6: STAGES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITY 8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ynKAR0p1js

Watch a video presentation on Heinz’s dilemma.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
Was a 20th century developmental psychologist and moral philosopher.
When he was the director of Harvard’s Center for Moral Education, Kohlberg’s
research focused on the moral development of children particularly on how they
develop a sense of what is right or wrong, as well as justice. He observed that
children move through what he believed as definite stages of moral development.
(adapted from General Psychology with Drug Education book by Virgie S. Otig, MA and Winston B. Gallinero, MA)
KOHLBERG’S THEORY
Lawrence Kohlberg studied morality using a very interesting technique.
In his research, Kohlberg would ask children and adults to try solve moral dilemmas
in short stories and asked the participants to think out loud so he could follow their
reasoning.
The reason for this was Kohlberg was not interested with the specific answers to the
dilemmas.
He wanted to know how the person got to his answer.
His theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has
identifiable developmental stages and each become more adequate at responding to
moral dilemmas as the person progresses from one stage to the next.
KOHLBERG’S THEORY
Kohlberg asserted that the process of moral development was principally concerned
with justice, and that the process goes on throughout the individual’s lifetime.
After looking at hundreds of interviews using several stories. Kohlberg outlined
three broad levels and six specific stages of moral development.
 LEVEL I: PRE-CONVENTIONAL
MORALITY
Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation
Judgement at this level is solely focused on This is also called the “pre-moral” stage where
the self. decisions and actions are determined by immediate
physical consequence and not the true moral value.
Tis lie of moral reasoning is common among
children although some adults would also The over all goal at this stage is to avoid
exhibit such behaviour. punishment.
Stage 2: Reward Orientation
The child, having no concept about society’s
conventions on what is right or wrong, would As children grow older, they begin to see that there
base its judgement mainly on the external is actually room for negotiation because other
consequences of its actions. people have their own goals to meet and wants the
must be satisfied too.
Children learn to behave in a manner based on the
principle “What’s in it for me?”
 LEVEL II: CONVENTIONAL
MORALITY
This level of moral reasoning is typical of Stage 3: Good boy/Good girl Orientation
adolescents and adults.
At this stage, the child tries to seek approval from other
Conventional morality is to reason in a people by living up to their expectations.
conventional (something that is generally
accepted) manner. He also now understands the concept of loyalty, trust and
gratitude a well as become interested in motives and
It is accepting the rules and standards of one’s intentions behind a particular decision or action.
group.
This means decisions and the morality of his
actions are based on society’s views and Stage 4: Authority Orientation
expectations. By this time, individuals have reached adulthood and they
usually consider society as a whole when making
The focus of this level is the “significant others”
judgements.
or what is also called “tyranny of the they” (They
say this….they say that….they say I should….) The focus at this stage is following the rules, maintaining
law and order, doing one’s duty and respecting authority.
LEVEL III: POST
CONVENTIONAL
This is also known as the “principled level”. It is marked by a growing realization
that people are unique and are an independent part of the society.
Therefore, the individuals’ own perspective is more significant over what the rest of
the society thinks and that this would sometimes led to disobeying the law to follow
personal principles.
At this level, a person does not see rules and laws as absolute or beyond question,
but a changeable mechanism.
Kohlberg asserted that post conventional individuals view rules and laws to be
important in maintaining peace and order but it only serves as a guide that needs to
be weighed against personal principles and beliefs to uphold one’s human rights.
LEVEL III: POST
CONVENTIONAL
Stage 5: Social Contract orientation
This stage means the individual is aware that much of what is considered to be moral
or good is mainly based on personal beliefs as well as on the social group they
belong to and that only a very few of the known fundamental values are actually
universal.
The person at this level understands that the world holds different opinions, rights,
and values; thus different views should be mutually respected.
Laws are also regarded as a matter a social contract with one’s fellow human beings
in order to promote universal values and that decisions are made for “the greater
good for the most number of people.”
LEVEL III: POST
CONVENTIONAL
Stage 6: Principle Orientation
At this point, social contract takes a clear back seat and the person makes a personal
commitment to uphold universal principles of equal rights and respect.
At this stage, an individual already has principled conscience, and will follow
universal, ethical principles regardless of what the laws or the rules say.
Judgement here is based on abstract reasoning such as being able to put oneself in
other people’s shoes.
ACTIVITY 9
Where are you now in your moral development based on Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development?
END OF LESSON 2
REFERENCES
Pasco, Marc Oliver et al. Ethics, C & E Publishing,Inc., 20018
Freud, Sigmund, The Unconscious. Graham Frankland (Trans) UK: penguin Books, 2005
Honneth, Axel. The Struggle for Recognition: The Moral Grammar of Social Conflicts.
Joel Anderson (Trans.) Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2005
Mead, George Herbert. Mind, Self and Society: From the Stand point of Social
Behaviorist. Chicago: University of Chicago, Press, 2009
Piaget, Jeana and Inhelder, Barbel. The Psychology of the Child, New York: Basic Books,
2000
“Stages of Moral Development.” Retrieved from https://info.psu.edu.sa/psu/maths/stages
%20of%20Moral%20Development%20According%20to%20Kohlberg.pdf