BIO 102 L2

KINGDOM MONERA AND KINGDOM

PROTISTA
 Outline

1. Diversity of Monera Kingdom

2. Structure of Prokaryotes

3. Prokaryotic Metabolism

4. Bacterial Diseases in Humans

5. Beneficial Prokaryotes
 KINGDOM MONERA

• Monera is the kingdom which contains the least organized

unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms on earth.
• Kingdom Monera consists of 3 domains: cyanobacteria (Eg.
Nostoc, Spirulina), archaebacteria (Eg. Lokiarcheota,
Korarchaeota) and eubacteria (maximum bacteria, Eg.
Lactobacillus, Streptococcus); in general all prokaryotic
bacteria fall under Kingdom Monera.
• They are metabolically diverse, using a variety of substrates as
their energy and carbon sources.
• They play a vital role in nitrogen and carbon cycles.
• Asexual reproduction is by binary fission, budding and
fragmentation.
• Horizontal gene transfer is also found in monerans
• Since monerans are prokaryotes, they do not
have membrane bound organelles like the
nucleus.
• Found in diverse environments: Some grow in
conditions that would seem very normal to us,
whereas others are able to thrive and grow
under conditions that would kill a plant or
animal
 Monera - General body functions

Nutrition
 Prokaryotes are very well equipped to make their living out of a vast array
of nutrients and conditions. To live, prokaryotes need a source of energy, a
source of carbon, and some additional nutrients.
 For cells to build all of the molecules required to sustain life, they need
certain substances, collectively called nutrients.
 Elements considered to be macronutrients—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. They are the components of organic
compounds in cells, including water.
 Carbon is the major element in all macromolecules: carbohydrates,
proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and many other compounds.
 prokaryotes require various metallic elements in small amounts.
 These are referred to as micronutrients or trace elements. For example,
iron is necessary for the function of the cytochromes involved in electron-
transport reactions.
• The four nutritional categories found in bacteria are :
• (i) Autotrophs - synthesize their own organic food.
• (ii) Saprotrophs - feed on dead and decaying matter.
• (iii) Symbionts - use food from other living organisms
with which they are associated for mutual benefit.
• (iv) Parasites - absorb food from living organisms
and cause harm to them.
 Classification Based on how they obtain food
1. Autotrophic bacteria -can make their own food
2. Heterotrophic bacteria -cannot make their own food. Must absorb nutrients.
• Autotrophic bacteria can be further divided into
A. Photoautotrophs
• They are photosynthetic
• They use solar energy to reduce C02 to organic compounds
• There are 2 types of photosynthetic bacteria
• a) Those that do NOT give off 02
• Possess a unique kind of chlorophyll called bacterio-chlorophyll
• Examples are green sulphur bacteria and purple bacteria
• These bacteria usually live in anaerobic conditions such as the muddy bottom of
a marsh
• They do not use H20 as an electron donor (like plants) and therefore do not give
off 02
• Instead of H20 they may use hydrogen sulfide (H2S )
• Simple formula can be written as: C02 + 2 H2S --> (CH20)n + 2 S
 Cont’d
• Those that give off 02
• Contain chlorophyll a, like most all algae and multi-cellular plants
• Carry on photosynthesis like algae and plants by using H 2O to reduce C02 to
a organic compound and release 02 into the atmosphere.
• Example include blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) in Kingdom Monera
• • Simple formula can be written as: C02 + 2 H2O --> (CH20)n + 02
B. Chemoautotrophs
• Are chemosynthetic
• To obtain the energy needed to reduce C0 2 into an organic compound
(food), by oxidizing an inorganic compound like hydrogen gas, hydrogen
sulfide, and ammonia
• Nitrifying bacteria keep nitrogen cycling through ecosystems by oxidizing
ammonia into nitrites(No2) and nitrates(No3)
• Other examples of chemosynthetic bacteria include those that live in the
deep ocean vents
 2.Heterotrophic bacteria

• A. Saprotrophs
• Are called heterotrophs because they take in or absorb organic nutrients. They do not
make their own food
• They are aerobic saprotrophs
• They can decompose almost any molecule into smaller molecules that can be absorbed
through their cell wall and plasma membrane
• In ecosystems, saprotrophic bacteria are called decomposers
• The deep piles of leaves left from Fall are decomposed with the help of these
decomposers
• The dead bodies of plants and animals are decomposed with the help of these
decomposers
• B. Symbiotic Bacteria
• Uses food from other living organisms with which they are associated for mutual
benefit.
• Certain species of bacteria live in the intestines of humans and produce vitamins K and
B12.
• Humans provide the bacteria a place to live and grow, while the bacteria provide
humans with needed vitamins
C. Parasitic bacteria
• Absorb food from living organisms and cause harm to them.
• Parasitic bacteria that cause disease are called pathogens
• The growth of pathogens or the microbes themselves does not
normally cause disease, it is the poisonous substances pathogens
releases are normally the cause of diseases.
• These poisonous substances are called toxins.
Respiration
• Respiration in bacteria may be either
i. aerobic i.e. using oxygen for respiration or
ii. anaerobic i.e. respiration in the absence of oxygen.
• Cellular respiration or breakdown of food to release energy
occurs in mesosomes
• These are the inner extensions of the cell membrane.
 PROKARYOTIC DIVERSITY

• Prokaryotes are ubiquitous.

• They cover every imaginable surface where there is sufficient moisture, and
they live on and inside of other living things.
• They comprise the majority of living things in all ecosystems.
• Some thrive in environments that are inhospitable for most living things.
• They recycle nutrients—essential substances (such as carbon and nitrogen) and
have been on Earth long since before multicellular life appeared.
• Prokaryotes thrive in a vast array of environments: Some grow in conditions
that would seem very normal to us, whereas others are able to thrive and grow
under conditions that would kill a plant or animal.
• Almost all prokaryotes have a cell wall, a protective structure that allows them
to survive in both hyper- and hypo-osmotic conditions.
• Some soil bacteria are able to form endospores that resist heat and drought,
thereby allowing the organism to survive until favorable conditions recur.
• Other bacteria and archaea are adapted to grow under extreme conditions and
are called extremophiles, meaning “lovers of extremes.”
 PROKARYOTIC DIVERSITY
Table 1: Extremophiles and Their Preferred Conditions
• Extremophiles have been found in all kinds of
environments: the depth of the oceans, hot
springs, the Artic and the Antarctic, in very
dry places, deep inside earth, in harsh
chemical environments, in dead sea, and in
high radiation environments.
• These organisms give us a better
understanding of prokaryotic diversity and
open up the possibility of finding new
prokaryotic species that may lead to the
discovery of new therapeutic drugs or have
industrial applications.
• There are many different groups of
extremophiles:
• They are identified based on the conditions
in which they grow best, and several habitats
are extreme in multiple ways (Table 1).
 STRUCTURE OF PROKARYOTES

• There are many differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic

cells.
• However, all cells have four common structures:
• The plasma membrane, which functions as a barrier for the cell and
separates the cell from its environment;
• the cytoplasm, a jelly-like substance inside the cell;
• nucleic acids, the genetic material of the cell; and
• ribosomes, where protein synthesis takes place.
• Bacteria come in various shapes, but many fall into three categories:
cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), and spirilli (spiral shaped).
• Cellular arrangements occur singularly, in chains, and in clusters.
Some species have one to numerous projections called flagella
enabling the bacteria to swim, making them motile organisms.
 Cocci

• Cocci (or coccus for a single

cell) are round cells, sometimes
slightly flattened when they are
adjacent to one another.
• Cocci bacteria can exist singly,
in pairs (as diplococci), in
groups of four (as tetrads), in
chains (streptococci), in clusters
(as staphylococci), or in cubes
consisting of eight cells
(sarcinae)
 Bacilli
• Bacilli (or bacillus for a single cell)
are rod-shaped bacteria. (Since the
length of a cell varies under the
influence of age or environmental
conditions, it can not be used as a
method of classification for bacillus
bacteria).
• They can occur singly, in pairs, or in
chains.
• Examples of bacillus bacteria
include coliform bacteria, which are
used as an indicator of wastewater
pollution in water, as well as the
bacteria responsible for typhoid
fever
 Spirilla
• Spirilla (or spirillum for a
single cell) are curved
bacteria which can range
from a gently curved shape
to a corkscrew-like spiral.
• Many spirilla are rigid and
capable of movement.
• A special group of spirilla
known as spirochetes are
long, slender, and flexible
 THE PROKARYOTIC CELL
• Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack organelles
or other internal membrane-bound structures.
• Do not have a nucleus but instead have a single
chromosome—a piece of circular, double-stranded DNA
located in an area of the cell called the nucleoid.
• Most prokaryotes have a cell wall outside the plasma
membrane.
• The composition of the cell wall differs significantly
between the domains; Bacteria and Archaea.
• The composition of their cell walls also differs from the
eukaryotic cell walls found in plants (cellulose) or fungi
and insects (chitin).
 Cont’d
• The cell wall functions as a protective layer, and
it is responsible for the organism’s shape.
• Some bacteria have an outer capsule outside
the cell wall.
• Some species also have flagella (singular,
flagellum) used for locomotion, and pili
(singular, pilus) used for attachment to surfaces.
• Plasmids, which consist of extra-chromosomal
DNA, are also present in many species of
bacteria and archaea.
THE PROKARYOTIC CELL
 Capsule

• Capsule is the outer -most layer of the bacteria (extra cellular).

• It is a condensed well defined layer closely surrounding the cell
• In a large number of bacteria, a slimy capsule is present outside
the cell wall.
• It is composed of polysaccharides and the nitrogenous
substances (amino acids) are also present in addition.
• This slime layer becomes thick, called, capsule.
• The bacteria, which form a capsule, are’ called capsulated or
virulent bacteria.
• The Capsule protects against complement and is anti phagocytic.
• The capsule ‘is usually found in parasitic forms e.g., Bacillus,
anthracite, Diplococcus pneumoniae, Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
 CELL WALL

• The cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells has a high concentration of

dissolved solutes and so the osmotic pressure within the cell is
relatively high.
• The cell wall is a protective layer that surrounds some cells and gives
them shape and rigidity.
• Found outside the cell membrane and its main function is to prevent
the cell from expanding and eventually bursting due to water
uptake.
• Cell wall constitutes a significant portion of the dry weight of the cell
and it is essential for bacterial growth and division.
• The cell wall cannot be seen by direct light microscopy and does not
stain with simple stains.
• It is composed of peptidoglycan (Peptidoglycan is made of
polysaccharide chains that are cross-linked by unusual peptides
containing both L- and D-amino acids including D-glutamic acid and D-
alanine).There are more than 100 different forms of peptidoglycan
The plasma membrane
• The plasma membrane is a thin lipid bilayer that
completely surrounds the cell and separates the inside
from the outside.
• Its’ selectively permeable nature keeps ions, proteins, and
other molecules within the cell and prevents them from
diffusing into the extracellular environment, while other
molecules may move through the membrane.
• The general structure of a cell membrane is a phospholipid
bilayer composed of two layers of lipid molecules
• In archaeal cell membranes, isoprene (phytanyl) chains
linked to glycerol replace the fatty acids linked to glycerol
in bacterial membranes.
 GRAM NEGATIVE-POSITIVE BACTERIA
• Bacteria are divided into two major groups: Gram positive and Gram
negative, based on their reaction to Gram staining. The Gram staining
method is named after its inventor, Danish scientist Hans Christian
Gram (1853–1938). The different bacterial responses to the staining
procedure are ultimately due to cell wall structure.
• Gram-positive organisms typically lack the outer membrane found in
Gram-negative organisms (Figure 3). Up to 90 percent of the cell wall in
Gram-positive bacteria is composed of peptidoglycan, and most of the
rest is composed of acidic substances called teichoic acids.
• The functions of Teichoic acid are
• gives negative charge
• a major antigenic determinant
• transport ions
• For anchoring
• external permeability barrier
Figure3: Bacteria are divided into two major groups: Gram
positive and Gram negative
 Differences
• Both groups have a cell wall composed
of peptidoglycan
• In Gram-positive bacteria, the wall is
thick, whereas in Gram-negative
bacteria, the wall is thin.
• In Gram-negative bacteria, the cell wall
is surrounded by an outer membrane
that contains lipopolysaccharides and
lipoproteins.
• Porins are proteins in the cell membrane
that allow substances to pass through
the outer membrane of Gram-negative
bacteria.
• In Gram-positive bacteria, lipoteichoic
acid anchors the cell wall to the cell
membrane.
Cytoplasmic membrane
• Cytoplasmic membrane is present immediately beneath the cell wall,
found in both Gram positive and negative bacteria.
• it is a thin layer lining the inner surface of cell wall and separating it
from cytoplasm.
• It acts as a semi-permeable membrane controlling the flow of
metabolites to and from the protoplasm.
• Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm is a Colloidal system containing a variety of organic
and inorganic solutes containing 80% Water and 20% Salts, Proteins.
• They are rich in ribosomes, DNA and fluid.
• DNA is circular and haploid.
• They are highly coiled with intermixed polyamines & support
proteins. Plasmids are extra circular DNA.
Ribosomes
• They are the centers of protein synthesis. They are slightly smaller than the
ribosomes of eukaryotic cells
Mesosomes
• They are vesicular, convoluted tubules formed by invagination of plasma
membrane into the cytoplasm.
• They are principal sites of respiratory enzymes and help with cell reproduction
Cytoplasmic Inclusions
• The Inclusion bodies are aggregates of polymers produced when there is
excess of nutrients in the environment and they are the storage reserve for
granules, phosphates and other substances.
Nucleus
• The Nucleus is not distinct and has no nuclear membrane or nucleolus and
the genetic material consist of DNA.
• The cytoplasmic carriers of genetic information are termed plasmids or
episomes.
Flagella
• Flagella are long hair like helical filaments extending from cytoplasmic membrane to
exterior of the cell.
• Flagellin is highly antigenic and functions in cell motility.
Pili / Fimbriae
• Hair-like proteinaceous structures that extend from the cell membrane to external
environment are pili which are otherwise known as fimbriae.
• They are thinner, shorter and more numerous than flagella and they do not
function in motility.
• There are two types pili namely Non-sex pili (Common pili) eg. fimbriae or type IV
and the sex pili.
• The fimbriae are antigenic and mediate their adhesion which inhibits phagocytosis.
• The sex pili help in conjugation.
 hair-like projections of the cell
 sexual conjugation
 adhesion to host epithelium
 Cyanobacteria
• Cyanobacteria are the only
photosynthesizing prokaryotes.
• Photosynthesis occurs in the
folds of the outer membranes of
cyanobacteria.
• Cyanobacteria were responsible
for the conversion of the
reducing atmosphere of early
earth into the oxidizing
atmosphere.
• They are found in each and
every aquatic habitat from fresh
water to ocean.
 Reproduction

 Reproduction in prokaryotes is
asexual and usually takes place by
binary fission.
 The DNA of a prokaryote exists as a
single, circular chromosome.
 Prokaryotes do not undergo mitosis,
but the chromosome is replicated
and the two resulting copies
separate from one another, due to
the growth of the cell.
 The enlarged prokaryote, now is
pinched inward at its equator and
the two resulting cells, which are
clones, separate.
 Prokaryotes mechanism of gene transfer
• Binary fission does not provide an
opportunity for genetic recombination
or genetic diversity, but prokaryotes
can share genes by three other
mechanisms.
1. Transformation: The prokaryote
takes in DNA found in its
environment that is shed by other
prokaryotes.
• If a nonpathogenic bacterium takes
up DNA for a toxin gene from a
pathogen and incorporates the new
DNA into its own chromosome, it too
may become pathogenic.
 Transduction:
• Bacteriophages are the viruses
that infect bacteria, sometimes
also move short pieces of
chromosomal DNA from one
bacterium to another.
• A bacteriophage injects DNA
into the cell that contains a
small fragment of DNA from a
different prokaryote.
• Transduction results in a
recombinant organism.
 3. Conjugation
• DNA is transferred from one
cell to another via a mating
bridge that connects the two
cells by means of a pilus,
which brings the organisms
into contact with one another
close enough to form the
bridge
• The DNA transferred can be in
the form of a plasmid or as a
hybrid, containing both
plasmid and chromosomal
DNA.
 Terminologies of spread of diseases in
Humans
 Epidemiologists study how diseases affect a
population.
 An epidemic is a disease that occurs in an
unusually high number of individuals in a
population at the same time.
 A pandemic is a widespread, usually worldwide,
epidemic.
 An endemic disease is a disease that is constantly
present, usually at low incidence, in a population.
 Transmission(SPREAD)
 Many human diseases are caused by bacteria.
 Most disease-producing bacteria use their host for food,
but some poison their hosts.
 To cause disease in humans, bacteria or poison they
produce must first get into the body.
 Through contaminated food or water.
 Inhalation of bacteria present in the air after an infected
person sneezes or coughs, touch a contaminated object,
 Sexual intercourse with an infected partner.
 Through broken skin as a result of an injury or injection
with a contaminated needle.
 BIOFILMS AND DISEASE
 A biofilm is a microbial community held together in a gummy-
textured matrix that consists primarily of polysaccharides secreted
by the organisms, together with some proteins and nucleic acids.
 Biofilms grow attached to surfaces.
 Biofilms are present almost everywhere: they can cause the
clogging of pipes and readily colonize surfaces in industrial settings.
 They also colonize household surfaces, such as kitchen counters,
cutting boards, sinks, and toilets, as well as places on the human
body, such as the surfaces of our teeth.
 The sticky substance that holds bacteria together also excludes
most antibiotics and disinfectants.
 Overall, biofilms are very difficult to destroy because they are
resistant to many common forms of sterilization.
 Cont’d
 They are responsible for diseases such as
infections in patients with cystic fibrosis, and
otitis media.
 They produce dental plaque and colonize
catheters, orthopedic devices, contact lenses,
etc.
 They also form in open wounds and burned
tissue.
 In healthcare environments, biofilms grow on
hemodialysis machines, mechanical ventilators,
and other medical equipment.
 In fact, 65 percent of all infections acquired in
the hospital (nosocomial infections) are
attributed to biofilms.
 Biofilms are also related to diseases contracted
from food because they colonize the surfaces of
vegetable leaves and meat, as well as food-
processing equipment that is not
adequately cleaned
 FOODBORNE DISEASES

 Prokaryotes are everywhere: They readily colonize the surface of any type
of material, and food is not an exception.
 Outbreaks of bacterial infection related to food consumption are common.
 A foodborne disease (colloquially called “food poisoning”) is an illness
resulting from the consumption of the pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or
other parasites that contaminate food.
 In the past, it was relatively common to hear about sporadic cases of
botulism, the potentially fatal disease produced by a toxin from the
anaerobic bacterium Clostridium botulinum.
 Some of the most common sources for this bacterium were non-acidic
canned foods, and processed meat and sausages.
 The can, jar, or package created a suitable anaerobic environment where
Clostridium could grow.
 Proper sterilization and canning procedures have reduced the incidence of
this disease.
 Formation of Endospores

• Some very deadly bacteria produce endospores

• When faced with unfavorable environmental conditions a portion of the
cytoplasm and a copy of the chromosome will dehydrate and form an
endospore.
• In some bacteria the original bacterial cell deteriorates and the endospore
is released
• The endospore can tolerate harsh conditions and survive for long periods
of time
• When favorable conditions return, endospores re-hydrate and become a
typical bacterial cell again.
• Anthrax endospores have been known to survive 1,300 years and still
germinate into infectious bacteria
• Eg. Of endospore producing bacteria: Bacillus anthracis causing anthrax
disease; Bacillus cereus causing food poisoning; Clostridium tetani causing
tetanus.
 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA

Bacteria as decomposers
• Soil fertility
– Nitrifying bacteria –Nitrosomonas&Nitrobacter
– Ammonifying bacteria
– Nitrogen fixing type of bacteria-Rhizobium leguminosarum, Clostridium
&Azotobacter
Food that use bacteria in their production include
– Soy sauce-Pediococcusspecies
– Cheese-Lactobacillus
– Vinegar-Acinetobacter species
Bacteria in various industries
• Fibre retting(helps dissolve or away much of the cellulartissues & pectins)
– Clostridium felsineum&Clostridium pectinovorum
Industrial production of organic compound
– Acetone & Isopropanol-Clostridium species
– Acrylic acid &Proplene Glycol- Bacillus species
Bacteria in dairy products
• Lactic acid bacteria
 Cont’d
Bacteria in the production of vitamins
– Riboflavin (Vitamin B) - Clostridium butylicum
– Cobalamine (Vitamin B12) -Pseudomonas denitrificans
Bacteria in the production of antibiotics
– Bacitracin- Bacillus subtilis
– Aureomycin – Streptomyces species
– Terramycin – Streptomyces rimosus
– Streptomycin-Streptomyces griseus
Bacteria in the production of enzymes
– Streptokinase-Streptococcus pyogenes
– Proteokinase- Bacillus subtilis
– Amylase-Bacillus species
Bacteria in the production of Steroids
– Cornyebacterium&Streptomyces
 Bioremediation
 Microbial bioremediation is the use of prokaryotes (or microbial
metabolism) to remove pollutants.
 Bioremediation has been used to remove agricultural chemicals
(pesticides, fertilizers) that leach from soil into groundwater and the
subsurface.
 Certain toxic metals and oxides, such as selenium and arsenic compounds,
can also be removed from water by bioremediation.
 Mercury is an example of a toxic metal that can be removed from an
environment by bioremediation.
 Methyl mercury is usually present in very low concentrations in natural
environments, but it is highly toxic because it accumulates in living tissues.
 Several species of bacteria can carry out the biotransformation of toxic
mercury into nontoxic forms. These bacteria, such as Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, can convert Hg2 into Hg0, which is nontoxic to humans.
 One of the most useful and interesting examples of the use of prokaryotes
for bioremediation purposes is the cleanup of oil spills.
 Kingdom Protista
• This kingdom is made up of a group of eukaryotic organisms
which are mostly aquatic in nature and are found in the
moist places.

• These organisms are usually unicellular and the cell of these

organisms contain nucleus which is bound to organelles
(Eukaryotic).

• These are the organisms that were traditionally considered

as the first eukaryotic forms of living, main predecessors to
the organisms in the plant, animal, and the fungus kingdoms.
 General characteristics
• They possess Mitochondria for cellular respiration and some
have chloroplast for photosynthesis.
• They move either by Cilia (Paramecium), flagella (Euglena) or
maybe Pseudopodia (Amoeba)
• Some are heterotrophic while some are both heterotrophic and
Photosynthetic e.g. Euglena
• They are mainly aquatic while few are parasitic.
• Some protists are responsible for serious human diseases like
Malaria, Sleeping sickness.
• Most of them are primary producers in the aquatic eco system
e.g. Algae
• Mode of reproduction is usually Asexual by Mitosis while some
exhibit sexual reproduction by the fusion of gametes.
 Classification
• The kingdom Protista is divided into three types:
• Animal like Protists – also called protozoa (means
“first animal”) – heterotrophs

• Plant like Protists – also called algae – autotrophs

• Fungus like Protists – Moulds- heterotrophs,

decomposers, external digestion
 Animal like Protists (Protozoa)
• Protozoans are unicellular organisms. They are
divided into Amoeboid protozoans, Animal like
flagellates and sporozoans.
• Protozoans include predatory, parasitic and
grazing species
• They usually kill other organisms such as
bacteria for the purpose of acquiring food. They
are also parasitic organisms which live in the cells
of other large organisms.
• Some protozoans are internal parasites
responsible for serious diseases throughout the
world
• They usually appear like jelly or spherical
structures.
• They reproduce both sexually and asexually as by
binary fission.
• Certain examples that come under this type
include Amoeba, Paramecium, Sporozoa,
Plasmodium etc.
 Plant Like Protists (Algae)
• These are generally single-celled
or multi-cellular organisms.
• They are photosynthetic organisms
that are mostly found in freshwater
sources or marine lakes.
• They are characterized by a stiff
cell wall.
• Usually, the algae are of six types
namely green algae, brown algae,
red algae, diatoms, pyrrophytes,
and euglenoids.
• All of these exhibit a unique
character among them.
• Few examples of Algae are Volvox,
Netrium, Spirogyra etc
 Fungus –Like Protists (Molds)
• These group of protists namely:
The chytrids, slime moulds, and
water moulds have members
with fungus-like characteristics.
• Chytrids and water moulds like
fungi are saprophytic organisms
that live on dead and decaying
matter.
• Like fungi, molds are
characterized by the presence
of spores and are even visible to
naked eye.
• Unlike fungi, slime moulds are
phagocytic predators
 Study questions
1. Explain the need for nitrogen fixation and
how it is accomplished
2. Identify foods in which prokaryotes are used
in the processing
3. Describe the use of prokaryotes in
bioremediation
4. Describe the beneficial effects of bacteria
that colonize our skin and digestive tracts