Engineering Analysis - Chapter 1 - Updated

TON DUC THANG UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONCIS ENGINEERING
402064
ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS
.Phuong T. Tran, PhD

CHAPTER 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF
LINEAR SYSTEMS
 1.1 Introduction
 1.2 Linear algebra
 1.3 Transfer function and impulse response
 1.4 Representation of control systems
402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

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OBJECTIVES
 Understand the basic concepts and

disciplines of automatic control.
 Learn the different between classical and
modern modelling of control systems
 Review the representation of linear control
systems
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LINEAR SYSTEMS

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CLASSICAL VS. MODERN CONTROL
Classical Control Modern Control

• System Modelling • State Space Modelling
• Transfer Function • Eigenvalue Analysis
• Block Diagrams • Observability and Controllability
• Signal Flow Graphs • Solution of State Equations (state Transition
• System Analysis Matrix)
• Time Domain Analysis (Test Signals) • State Space to Transfer Function
• Frequency Domain Analysis • Transfer Function to State Space
• Bode Plots
• Nyquist Plots
• Nichol’s Chart
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WHAT IS A CONTROL SYSTEM?
 Generally speaking, a control system is a
system that is used to realize a desired output
or objective.
 Control systems are everywhere:
 They appear in our homes, in cars, in industry, in
scientific labs, and in hospital…
 Principles of control have an impact on diverse fields
as engineering, aeronautics ,economics, biology and
medicine…
 Wide applicability of control has many advantages
(e.g., it is a good vehicle for technology transfer)
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WHAT DO THESE TWO HAVE IN
COMMON?
Tornado
Boeing 777
• Highly nonlinear, complicated dynamics!
• Both are capable of transporting goods and people
over long distances
BUT
• One is controlled, and the other is not.
• Control is “the hidden technology that you meet every day”
• It heavily relies on the notion of “feedback”
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DEFINITIONS
 System – An interconnection of elements and
devices for a desired purpose.
 Control System – An interconnection of
components forming a system configuration that
will provide a desired response.
 Process – The device or system under control.
The input and output relationship represents the
cause-and-effect relationship of the process.
Input Process Output

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DEFINITIONS
 Controlled Variable – It is the quantity or condition
that is measured and Controlled. Normally controlled
variable is the output of the control system.
 Manipulated Variable – It is the quantity of the
condition that is varied by the controller so as to
affect the value of controlled variable.
 Control – Control means monitoring controlled
variables and applying the manipulated variables to
the system to correct or limit the deviation of the
measured value from a desired value.

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DEFINITIONS
 Disturbances – A disturbance is a signal that
tends to adversely affect the value of the system. It
is an unwanted input of the system.
 If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is
called internal disturbance. While an external
disturbance is generated outside the system.
Manipulated Variable
Input
or Output
Set point Controller Process Or
or Controlled Variable
reference
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BRIEF HISTORY OF CONTROL
 Two of the earliest examples
 Water clock (270 BC)
 Self-leveling wine vessel (100BC)
The idea is
still used
today, i.e.
flush toilet

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BRIEF HISTORY OF CONTROL
 Fly-ball governor (James Watt,1769)
• the first modern controller

• regulated speed of steam engine
• reduced effects of variances in
load
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SystemsIndustrial Revolution 12
CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL
SYSTEMS
Control Systems
Natural Man-made
LT
I
Co
Manual Automatic
ntro
lS
ys
Open-loop Closed-loop
te
m
s
Non-linear linear
Non-linear linear
Time variantTime invariant

Time variantTime invariant
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TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
 Open-Loop Control Systems utilize a controller or
control actuator to obtain the desired response.
 Output has no effect on
Input Output
the control action. Controller Process
 In other words output is
neither measured nor fed
back.
 For each reference input, there corresponds a fixed
operating conditions; the accuracy of the system
depends on calibration.
 In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop
system will not perform the desired task.
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OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
Examples
Washing machine
Traffic signals
Note that any control

systems that operates on a
time basis are open-loop.
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OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
 Some comments on open-loop control
systems:
 Simple construction and ease of
maintenance.
Good
 Less expensive than a closed-loop system.
 No stability problem.
 Recalibration is necessary from time to
time. Bad
 Sensitive to disturbances, so less accurate.

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 Closed-Loop Control Systems utilizes feedback
to compare the actual output to the desired output
response.
Input Output
Comparator Controller Process
Measurement
 This seemingly simple idea is tremendously

powerful.
 Feedback is a key idea in the discipline of control.
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CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
 In practice, feedback control system and closed-
loop control system are used interchangeably
 Closed-loop control always implies the use of
feedback control action in order to reduce system
error.
Input + error Output
Controller Process
-
Feedback
 Feedback can be positive or negative.

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Example 1 : flush toilet
Plant: water tank
water q1(t)
Input: water flow piston
Output: water level h(t ) lever
float
Expected value: h0
Sensor: float h0
Controller: lever h(t)
Actuator: piston
Controller Actuator Plant
h0 q1 (t ) Water h(t )
Lever Piston threshold
Tank
q2(t)
Float
Sensor
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Example 2: Cruise control
mv  bv  ueng  uhill
ueng  k (vdes  v) Disturbance
Road grade uhill
Desired Control Actual
velocity vdes signal
Calculation Auto velocity v
Engine
element body
Reference Error ueng Controlled
input variable
Controller Actuator Plant
Sensor
Speedometer
Measured
velocity Sensor noise
Disturbance
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Other examples of feedback
Feedback systems are
not limited to engineering
but can be found in
various non-
engineering fields as
well.
The human body is

highly advanced
feedback control system.

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 Main advantages of feedback:

 reduce disturbance effects, make system
insensitive to variations.
 stabilize an unstable system.
 create well-defined relationship between
output and reference.

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 Potential drawbacks of feedback:

 cause instability if not used properly.
 couple noise from sensors into the dynamics
of a system.
 increase the overall complexity of a system.

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OPEN LOOP VS. CLOSED-LOOP
Open-loop control Closed-loop control
Simple structure, Ability to correct error

low cost
High accuracy and

Easy to regulate resistance of disturbance
Complex structure,
Low accuracy and high cost
resistance to disturbance
Selecting parameter is
critical (may cause stability
problem)
Open-loop ＋ Closed-loop ＝ Composite control system

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THINKING TIME …
Examples of open-loop
control and closed-loop
control systems ?
For each system, could

you identify the sensor,
actuator and controller?

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 Linear control system - A Control System in
which output varies linearly with the input.
u(t) Process y(t)
y(t )  2u(t )  1 y(t )  3u(t )  5

y=3*u(t)+5
y=-2*u(t)+1
35
5
30
0
25
-5
y(t)
y(t)
20
-10
15
-15
10
-20 5
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
u(t)
u(t)
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 Nonlinear control system - When the input and
output has nonlinear relationship the system is said
to be nonlinear. Adhesion Characteristics of Road
0.4
u(t) Process y(t)
Adhesion Coefficient
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Creep

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 Quite often, nonlinear characteristics are intentionally
introduced in a control system to improve its
performance or provide more effective control.
 For instance, to achieve minimum-time control, an
on-off (bang-bang or relay) type controller is used in
many missile or spacecraft control systems.
 There are no general methods for solving a wide
class of nonlinear systems.
 Linear control systems are idealized models
fabricated by the analyst purely for the simplicity of
analysis and design.
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 When the characteristics of the system do not
depend upon time itself then the system is said to
time invariant control system.
 Example: y(t )  2u(t )  1
 If output y(t) is corresponding to input x(t), then the
response of x(t – ) must be y(t – ), for all .
 Time varying control system is a system in which one
or more parameters vary with time.
 Example: y(t )  2u(t )  3t

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 In continuous data control system all system
variables are function of a continuous time t.
x(t)
t
 A discrete time control system involves one or more
variables that are known only at discrete time
intervals.
X[n]
n
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 A control system is deterministic if the response to
input is predictable and repeatable.
x(t) y(t)
t t
 If not, the control system is a stochastic control

system. z(t)
t
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MORE EXAMPLES

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MORE EXAMPLES

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MORE EXAMPLES

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MORE EXAMPLES

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MORE EXAMPLES
Segway:
The
human
transporter

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MORE EXAMPLES

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WHAT WE HAVE LEARNT SO FAR?
 So far we have learnt:

 Concept of control systems
 Classification of control systems
 Assignment:
 Read more examples in textbook.
 Exercises: find more example of control
systems in real life.

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LINEAR SYSTEMS

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REVIEW OF LINEAR ALGEBRA

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 Vector in Rn is an ordered 1
set of n real numbers.  
6
 e.g. v = (1,6,3,4) is in R 4  3
 
 4
 A column vector:  
 A row vector:
1 6 3 4
 m-by-n matrix is an object
in Rmxn with m rows and n 1 2 8
 
columns, each entry filled  4 78 6 
with a (typically) real 9 3 2
 
number:
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MATRICES
Matrix locations/size defined as rows x columns (R x C)
 d11 d12 d13 
D  d 21 d 22 d 23 
 d 31 d 32 d 33 
d i j : ith row, jth column
1 4 7  1 4 
A  2 5 8  A  2 5
3 6 9   x11 x12 x13  3 6
 x 21x11 x 22x12 x 23  
x13
Square (3 x 3)   x 21x11 x 22x12 x 23  
 x13 Rectangular (3 x 2)
  x 21
 x31 xx32
11 xx33
x 22
12  x13
x 23  
  x 21
 x31 xx32
11 xx33
x 22 x 23 
12  x13
  x 21
 x31 x32 x 22  
x33x 23

 x31 x32 x33 
 x31 x32 x33
3 dimensional (3 x 3 x 5)
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MATRIX CALCULUS
Transposition
1   3
b  1  dT  4
bT  1 1 2 d  3 4 9
2 9
column row row column
1 2 3 1 5 6 
A  5 4 1 AT  2 4 7
6 7 4 3 1 4

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MATRIX CALCULUS
Matrix Calculations
Addition
– Commutative: A+B=B+A
– Associative: (A+B)+C=A+(B+C)
2 4 1 0  2  1 4  0 3 4
AB     
2 5 3 1 2  3 5  1  5 6
  
Subtraction
- By adding a negative matrix
2 42 12 21 12 42 2 1 12  11 12 1
A  BA  B                         
5 32 32 41 15 32 2 3 14  12 1 11
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MATRIX CALCULUS
Matrix Multiplication
“When A is a mxn matrix & B is a kxl matrix, AB is only possible
if n=k. The result will be an mxl matrix”
Simply put, can ONLY perform A*B IF:
Number of columns in A = Number of rows in B
n l
A1 A 2 A 3 B13 B14
m A4 A 5 A 6 x B15 B16 k = m x l matrix
A7 A 8 A 9 B17 B18
A10 A11 A12

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MATRIX CALCULUS
Matrix multiplication
• Multiplication method:
Sum over product of respective rows and columns
• Note: Matrix multiplication is NOT commutative

i.e the order matters!
AB ≠ BA
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MATRIX CALCULUS
Identity matrix
A special matrix which plays a similar role as the number 1 in
number multiplication?
For any nxn matrix A, we have A In = In A = A

For any nxm matrix A, we have In A = A, and A Im = A (so 2
possible matrices) 402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear
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VECTOR NORM AND DOT PRODUCT
 Vector norms: A norm of a vector ||x|| is informally a
measure of the “length” of the vector.
1/ p
 p
n
x p    xi 
 i 1 
 Common norms: L1, L2 (Euclidean)
n n
x 1   xi x
2
x2 i
i 1 i 1
 L-infinity
x 
 max i xi
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VECTOR NORM AND DOT PRODUCT
 Vector dot (inner) product:
If u•v=0, ||u||2 != 0, ||v||2 != 0  u and v are orthogonal

If u•v=0, ||u||2 = 1, ||v||2 = 1  u and v are orthonormal
 Vector outer product:

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LINEAR COMBINATION & VECTOR
SPACE
 A linear combination of vectors is a vector that
can be obtained by multiplying these vectors by a
real number then adding them.
 The vector space defined by some vectors is a
space that contains all linear combinations of them.
 A matrix A (m x n) can itself be decomposed in as
many vectors as its number of columns (or rows).
 Each column of the matrix can be represented as a
vector. The ensemble of n vector-column defines a
vector space proper to matrix A.
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LINEAR INDEPENDENCE
 A set of vectors is linearly independent if none of
them can be written as a linear combination of the
others.
 Vectors v1,…,vk are linearly independent if c1v1 +…
+ ckvk = 0 implies c1 =…= ck = 0.
| | |  c1   0 
    
 v1 v2 v3  c2    0 
e.g. | | |  c3   0 

x3 = −2x1 + x2

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DIMENSION & BASIS OF A VECTOR
SPACE
 If all vectors in a vector space may be expressed
as linear combinations of a set of vectors v 1,…,vk,
then v1,…,vk spans the space.
 A basis is a maximal set of linearly independent
vectors and a minimal set of spanning vectors of a
vector space.
 The cardinality of a basis is the dimension of the
vector space.
 A basis is a maximal set of linearly independent
vectors and a minimal set of spanning vectors of a
vector space. 402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear
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DIMENSION & BASIS OF A VECTOR
SPACE
 2 1  0 0
e.g.  
2
   2
 
0 
 
2 1  
 
2 0 
 2 0  0 1
(0,0,1)        
(0,1,0)
(1,0,0)
 The rank of a matrix is the dimension of the vector

space spanned by its columns.
 If A is n by m, then rank(A) ≤ min(m,n).
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DETERMINANTS
• Determinants can only be found for square matrices.
• For a 2x2 matrix A, det(A) = ad-bc. Lets have a
closer look at that:
det(A) =
[ ]
a
c
b
d
= ad - bc
The determinant gives an idea of the ’volume’ occupied by the

matrix in vector space.
A matrix A has an inverse matrix A-1 if and only if det(A)≠0.
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DETERMINANTS
• The determinant of a matrix is zero if and only if
there exist a linear relationship between the lines or
the columns of the matrix.
1 2  y
X


 2 4 
Here x1 and x2 are superimposed in space, x1  12
because one can be expressed by a linear 4
x 24
combination of the other: x2 = 2x1. 
x2
2
The determinant of the matrix X will thus
2
be zero.
The largest square sub-matrix with a non- x1


zero determinant will be a matrix of 1x1 => x
the rank of the matrix is 1. 1 2
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MATRIX INVERSE
 Definition. A matrix A is called nonsingular or
invertible if there exists a matrix B such that:
-1
2 2+1 -1 + 1
1 1 X = = 1 0
3 3 3 3 3
3
-2+ 2
1 1 1+2
-1 2 3 0 1
 Notation. A common notation

3 3 3 3
3
for the inverse of a matrix A is

A-1. So:
 The inverse matrix is-1 unique when it exists. So if A
is invertible, then A is also invertible and then
(AT)-1 = (A-1)T.
 If A-1 and B-1 exist, then (AB)-1 = B-1A-1.
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MATRIX INVERSE
• For a XxX square matrix:
• The inverse matrix is:
• E.g.: 2x2 matrix
For a matrix to be invertible, its determinant has to be non-zero

(it has to be square and of full rank).
A matrix that is not invertible is said to be singular.
Reciprocally, a matrix that is invertible is said to be non-singular.
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MATRIX DERIVATIVES
By Thomas Minka. Old and New Matrix Algebra Useful for Statistics

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MATRIX DERIVATIVES - EXAMPLES

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EIGENVALUES & EIGENVECTORS
 Definition 1: A nonzero vector x is an eigenvector (or

characteristic vector) of a square matrix A if there
exists a scalar λ such that Ax = λx.
 λ is called an eigenvalue (or characteristic value) of A.
 Note: The zero vector can not be an eigenvector even
though A.0 = λ.0. But λ = 0 can be an eigenvalue .

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GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION
 An n×n matrix A multiplied by n×1 vector x results in
another n×1 vector y=Ax. Thus A can be considered
as a transformation matrix.
 In general, a matrix acts on a vector by changing both
its magnitude and its direction.
 However, a matrix may act on certain vectors by
changing only their magnitude, and leaving their
direction unchanged (or possibly reversing it).
 These vectors are the eigenvectors of the matrix.

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EIGENVALUE CALCULATION
 x  0 will be an eigenvector of A if and only if
det(A – λI) = 0
 This is called the characteristic equation of A. Its
roots determine the eigenvalues of A.
2  12 
 Example 1: Find the eigenvalues of A   
1 5
 2 12
I  A   (  2)(  5)  12
1  5
 2  3  2  (  1)(  2)
two eigenvalues: -1, -2.

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FINDING EIGENVECTORS
 To each distinct eigenvalue of a matrix A there are at
least one eigenvector which can be found by solving
the appropriate set of homogenous equations.
 If λi is an eigenvalue then the corresponding
eigenvector xi is the solution of (A – λiI)xi = 0.
 Example:
 3 12 1  4
  1 : (1) I  A     
  1 4   0 0 
x1  4 x2  0  x1  4t , x2  t
 x1  4
x1     t  , t  0
 x2  1 
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PROPERTIES
 Definition: The trace of a matrix A, designated by
tr(A), is the sum of the elements on the main
diagonal.
 Property 1: The sum of the eigenvalues of a matrix
equals the trace of the matrix.
 Property 2: A matrix is singular if and only if it has a
zero eigenvalue.
 Property 3: The eigenvalues of an upper (or lower)
triangular matrix are the elements on the main
diagonal.
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PROPERTIES
 Property 4: If λ is an eigenvalue of A then λ is an

eigenvalue of AT.
 Property 5: The product of the eigenvalues (counting
multiplicity) of a matrix equals the determinant of the
matrix.
 Property 6: Eigenvectors corresponding to distinct
(that is, different) eigenvalues are linearly
independent.

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SINGULAR VALUE DECOMPOSITION
(SVD)
 Any matrix A can be decomposed as A=UDVT,
where:
 D is a diagonal matrix, with d=rank(A) non-zero
elements .
 The fist d rows of U are orthogonal basis for col(A).
 The fist d rows of V are orthogonal basis for row(A).
 Applications of the SVD:
 Matrix pseudoinverse
 Low-rank matrix approximation

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EIGENVALUE DECOMPOSITION (SVD)
 Any symmetric matrix A can be decomposed
as A=UDUT, where:
 D is diagonal, who entries are eigenvalues of A.
 The fist d rows of U are orthogonal basis for col(A) =
row(A).
 Re-interpreting Ab:
 First stretch b along the direction
of u1 by d1 times.
 Then further stretch it along the
direction of u2 by d2 times …
02/11/2015 Systems 77
PSEUDOINVERSE
 With the help of SVD, we actually do NOT

need to explicitly invert XTX.
 Decompose X=UDVT.
 Then XTX = VDUTUDVT = VD2VT
 Since V(D2)VTV(D2)-1VT = I
 We know that (XTX)-1 = V(D2)-1VT
 Inverting a diagonal matrix D2 is trivial.

02/11/2015 Systems 78
WHAT WE HAVE LEARNT SO FAR?
 So far we have learnt:

 Concept of control systems
 Classification of control systems
 Assignment:
 Read more examples in textbook.
 Exercises: find more example of control
systems in real life.

02/11/2015 Systems 79
LINEAR SYSTEMS

02/11/2015 Systems 80
SYSTEM MATHEMATICAL MODELS
Differential equation
Classical approach
Transfer function
State-space model Modern approach (chap. 2)
Study Linear system study

time-domain frequency-domain
response response
Laplace
Differential transform
Transfer function
equation Fourier
transform
02/11/2015 Systems 81
TRANSFER FUNCTION
Input LTI Output
u(t) system y(t)
Assume all initial conditions are zero, the transfer

function (TF) of the system is defined as
L output y (t ) 
TF  H ( s ) 
L input u (t )  zero initial condition
where L  y (t )  denotes the Laplace transform of y(t).

02/11/2015 Systems 82
EXAMPLE: RLC CIRCUIT
R L
C uc(t)
u(t) i(t)
Input Output
u(t) system uc(t)
The system is modeled by the cause-effect

relationship between the input and output.
02/11/2015 Systems 83
R sL
I(s) 1
U(s) Uc(s)
sC
Input Output
U(s) system Uc(s)
Find the transfer function H(s) = Uc(s)/U(s) ?

02/11/2015 Systems 84
R L
According to Law of
Kirchhoff in electricity C
uc(t)
u(t) i(t)
di (t )
u (t )  Ri (t )  L  uc (t )    (1)
dt
1 duC (t )
uC (t ) 
C  i (t )dt    (2) i (t )  C
dt
2
duC (t ) d uC (t )
u (t )  RC  LC 2
 uC (t )
dt dt
02/11/2015 Systems 85
EXAMPLE – RLC CIRCUIT
 It is re-written as in standard form:

LCuC (t )  RCuC (t )  uC (t )  u (t )
 Generally ， we set
 the output on the left side of the equation
 the input on the right side
 the input and output is arranged from the highest
order to the lowest order of derivatives.

02/11/2015 Systems 86
LAPLACE TRANSFORM
WHY LAPLACE transform is needed?
Time-domain Laplace s-domain

ODE problems algebra problems
Transform
(LT)
Difficult Easy
Inverse
Solutions of time- Solutions of algebra
domain problems problems
LT
02/11/2015 Systems 87
TF OF TYPICAL COMPONENTS
Component ODE TF
v (t ) i (t )
V ( s)
R v (t )  Ri (t ) G( s)  R
I ( s)
i (t )
v (t ) di (t ) V ( s)
L
v (t )  L G( s)   sL
dt I ( s)
v (t ) i (t ) V ( s) 1
dv(t ) G( s)  
C i (t )  C I ( s ) sC
dt
02/11/2015 Systems 88
EXERCISE
Please build the differential equations and transfer
functions of the following systems.
Input Output
R1
ur (t ) R2 uc (t )

02/11/2015 Systems 89
EXERCISES
 Find the transfer function of the following

system:
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
2
5  4 y (t )  u (t )
dt dt
 Find the differential equation that describes
the following systems:
Y (s) s2  s  5
H (s)   3
U ( s ) 2 s  3s  7
02/11/2015 Systems 90
PROPERTIES OF TRANSFER
FUNCTION
 The transfer function is defined only for a linear
time-invariant system, not for nonlinear system.
 All initial conditions of the system are set to zero.
 The transfer function is independent of the input of
the system.
 The transfer function G(s) is the Laplace transform
of the unit impulse response g(t).

02/11/2015 Systems 91
IMPULSE RESPONSE
 Consider the output of a LTI system to a unit-

impulse input when the initial conditions are zero.
 The Laplace transform of the output of the system is
Y(s) = G(s).1 = G(s) (since the Laplace transform of
the unit-impulse function is unity)
 Definition: the inverse Laplace transform of G(s),
or L1[G ( s )]  g(t) , is called the impulse-response
function of the system.

02/11/2015 Systems 92
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND
ASSIGNMENTS
 Review questions:
 What is the definition of “transfer function”?
 When defining the transfer function, what happens
to initial conditions of the system?
 Does a nonlinear system have a transfer function?
 How does a transfer function of a LTI system relate
to its impulse response?
 Assignments: B-2-9 and the exercises from
next slide.
02/11/2015 Systems 93
LINEAR SYSTEMS

02/11/2015 Systems 94
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF LTI CONTROL
SYSTEMS
 The transfer function relationship Y(s) =

G(s).U(s) can be graphically denoted
through a block diagram:
U(s) Y(s)
G(s)

02/11/2015 Systems 95
EQUIVALENT TRANSFORM OF
BLOCK DIAGRAM
1. Connection in series
U(s) X(s) Y(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
U(s) Y(s)
G(s)
G (s)  ?
Y ( s)
G ( s)   G1 ( s )  G2 ( s )
U ( s)
02/11/2015 Systems 96
BLOCK DIAGRAM
2.Connection in parallel
U(s) Y1(s)
G1(s)
Y(S U(s)
) G(s) Y(s)

G2(s)
Y2(s)
G (s)  ?
Y (s)
G (s)   G1 ( s )  G2 ( s )
U ( s)
02/11/2015 Systems 97
BLOCK DIAGRAM
3. Negative feedback
R(s) U(s) Y(s)
_ G(s)
R(s) Y(s
M(s) )
H(s)
Y ( s)  U ( s)G ( s ) Y ( s )   R ( s )  Y ( s ) H ( s ) G ( s )

U ( s)  R( s)  Y ( s) H ( s)
Transfer function of a negative feedback system:
G(s) gain of the forward path
M (s)  
1  G (s) H (s) 1  gain of the loop
02/11/2015 Systems 98
SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH (SFG)
 SFG was introduced by S.J. Mason for the cause-
and-effect representation of linear systems.
1. Each signal is represented by a node.
2. Each transfer function is represented by a branch.
U(s) Y(s) G(s)
G(s)
U(s) Y(s)
R(s) U(s Y(s)

_ )
G(s) R(s) U(s)
G(s) Y(s)
1
H(s)
-H(s)
02/11/2015 Systems 99
SFG - EXAMPLE
U r ( s) I1 ( s ) － U1 ( s ) 1
1 1 1 U c ( s)
R1 sC1 R2 sC2
－－ I 2 ( s)
－1
1 1 1 1
1 R1 1 sC1 1 R2 sC2
U r ( s) I1 ( s ) U1 ( s ) I 2 ( s) U c ( s)
－1 －1

02/11/2015 Systems 100
MASON’S RULE
Y ( s) 1 N
M ( s)    M k k
U ( s)  k 1
N  total number of forward paths between output Y(s) and
input U(s)
Mk  path gain of the kth forward path.
 1  ( a ll individua l loop ga ins )
 ( ga in products of a ll pos s ible two loops tha t do not touch)
( ga in products of a ll pos s ible thre e loops tha t do not touch )

k  value of ∆ for that part of the block diagram that
does not touch the kth forward path.
02/11/2015 Systems 101
EXAMPLE - FIND THE TRANSFER
FUNCTION
H4
H6
① ② H1 ③ ④ H3 ⑤ 1 ⑥
1
U (s) H2 Y (s)
Solution. H5 H7
Forward path Path gain
123456 M 1  H1 H 2 H 3 and the determinates are
1256 M 2  H4   1  l1  l2  l3  l4   (l1l3 )
Loop path Path gain
232 l1  H1 H 5 1  1  0
343 l2  H 2 H 6 2  1  H 2 H6
454 l3  H 3 H 7
25432 l4  H 4 H 7 H 6 H 5
02/11/2015 Systems 102
EXAMPLE - FIND THE TRANSFER
FUNCTION
H4
H6
① ② H1 ③ ④ H3 ⑤ 1 ⑥
1
U (s) H2 Y (s)
H5 H7
Solution.
Applying Mason’s rule, we find the transfer function to be
Y (s) N M k  k
M (s)  
U ( s ) k 1 
H1 H 2 H 3  H 4  H 4 H 2 H 6

1  H1 H 5  H 2 H 6  H 3 H 7  H 4 H 7 H 6 H 5  H 1 H 5 H 3 H
02/11/2015 Systems 103
SUMMARY AND ASSIGNMENT
 In this chapter, we have learnt:
 Basic concept and classification of control
systems.
 Review of linear algebra
 Mathematical model of LTI systems
 Graphical representation of LTI systems.
 Assignments: B-2-5 to B-2-8.
 Reading assignment: Ogata - chapter 2 (pp.
29-39).
02/11/2015 Systems 104

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TON DUC THANG UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL AND

.Phuong T. Tran, PhD

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

 Understand the basic concepts and

02/11/2015 402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear Systems 3

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

Classical Control Modern Control

02/11/2015 402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear Systems 5

Input Process Output

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

• the first modern controller

Time variantTime invariant

Note that any control

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

 This seemingly simple idea is tremendously

 Feedback can be positive or negative.

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

The human body is

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

 Main advantages of feedback:

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

 Potential drawbacks of feedback:

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

Simple structure, Ability to correct error

High accuracy and

Open-loop ＋ Closed-loop ＝ Composite control system

For each system, could

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

y(t )  2u(t )  1 y(t )  3u(t )  5

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

 If not, the control system is a stochastic control

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

 So far we have learnt:

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

402064-Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Linear

• Note: Matrix multiplication is NOT commutative

For any nxn matrix A, we have A In = In A = A