PRINCIPLES OF SOIL EROSION

BY: FERDINAND V. SAGARIO, JR.

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY – SANCHEZ MIRA CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
OUTLINE
▪ SOIL EROSION
▪ CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION
▪ TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
▪ AGENTS OF SOIL EROSION
▪ FACTORS OF SOIL EROSION
▪ MECHANICS OF SOIL EROSION AND ITS CONTROL
▪ WATER EROSION AND THEIR CONTROL
▪ AGRONOMICAL MEASURES OF WATER CONTROL
ENGINEERS IN SOIL AND WATER
CONSERVATION
Why Agricultural Engineers?
• Because of their training in soils, plants, and other agricultural subjects, in addition
Engineers, with their engineering background, are well-equipped to integrate soil
science and conservation planning. They understand soil-plant-water interactions,
creating optimal environments for plant and animal production. Their expertise is
increasingly applied in rural-urban sectors, particularly in air and water pollution
control.
SOIL AND WATER CONTROL
ENGINEERING
 is the application of engineering and biological principles to the solution of soil and
water management problems.
 the conservation of natural resources implies utilization without waste so as to
make possible a continuous high level of crop production while improving
environmental quality.
SOIL EROSION
 The word erosion has been derived from the Latin word “erodere” which means
eating away or to excavate.
 Erosion is one of the most important agricultural problems in the world. It is a
primary source of sediment that pollutes streams and fills reservoirs.
 Soil erosion is the loosening of the soil from its place and its transportation from
one place to another.
 Erosion is a three-phase process involving
o the detachment of individual soil particles from soil mass,
o Transporting it from one place to another (by the action of any of the agents of erosion,
water, wind, ice, or gravity) and its deposition.

SOIL DETACHMENT TRANSPORTATION DEPOSITION

SOIL EROSION
Nonpoint refers to erosion from the land surface rather than from channels and
gullies. Eroded sediments can carry nutrients, particularly phosphates, to waterways,
and contribute to the eutrophication of lakes and streams. Adsorbed pesticides are
also carried with eroded sediments, adversely affecting surface water quality.
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION
There are many underlying factors responsible for this process, some induced by
nature and others by human beings. The main causes of soil erosion can be
enumerated as:

a. Natural Causes:
 Rainfall
 Wind
 Flood
 Soil Properties
 Lack of vegetative cover
 Land use and management practices
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION
b. Anthropogenic Causes

1. Destruction of Natural Protective Cover by

 Indiscriminate cutting of trees,
 Overgrazing of the vegetative cover and
 Forest fire.
2. Improper use of the Land
 Keeping the land barren subjecting it to the action of rain and wind,
 Growing of crops that accelerate soil erosion,
 Removal of organic matter and plant nutrients by injudicious cropping patterns,
 Cultivation along the land slope,
 Faulty methods of irrigation.
 Improper construction of water channels, roads, rail lines, cattle trails, etc.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
According to Origin:

 Soil erosion can be broadly categorized into two types; geologic erosion and accelerated
erosion.

GEOLOGICAL EROSION – is a natural process of weathering that generally occurs at low rates
on the parent rocks as the natural soil-forming processes. It occurs over long geologic time
horizons and is not influenced by human activity. Geologic erosion is also known as natural or
normal erosion.

ACCELERATED EROSION or HUMAN-OR-ANIMAL INDUCED EROSION – occurs due to

anthropogenic causes such as deforestation, slash-and-burn agriculture, intensive plowing,
intensive and uncontrolled grazing, and biomass burning. These activities intensify the factors
responsible for erosion and the erosion process is accelerated.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
According to Erosion Agents:

1. Water Erosion
- Water erosion is seen in many parts of the
world. Running water is the most common agent of soil
erosion.

 This includes rivers which erode the river basin,

rainwater which erodes various landforms, and sea
waves which erode the coastal areas.
 Water erodes and transports soil particles from higher
altitudes and deposits them in low-lying areas.
 Water erosion may further be classified, based on
different actions of water responsible for erosion, as:
 a. raindrop erosion, b. sheet erosion, c. rill erosion,
d. gully erosion, e. stream bank erosion, and f.
landslide erosion.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
Types of Water Erosion:

1. Raindrop erosion - it is also known as splash

erosion because it is caused by the impact of
raindrops on exposed soil surface. The process
of raindrop erosion can be described as:

• when a raindrop strikes an open soil surface it

forms a crater. this is accomplished by forming
a blast that bounces the water and soil up and
returns around the crater.
• the soil may be splashed into the air up to a
height of 50 to 75 cm depending upon the size
of rain drops. At the same time, the soil
particles also move horizontally as much as
1.50 m on a level land surface. on sloping land,
more than half of the splashed particles move
down with the runoff.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
2. Sheet erosion - a type of soil erosion where soil
is removed uniformly by flowing water from a
given width of sloping land. It involves two basic
processes: splash erosion, where soil particles are
detached from the surface by raindrops, and wash
erosion, where they are transported by flowing
water. The eroding and transporting power of
sheet erosion depends on the depth and velocity
of flowing water for a given size, shape, and
density of soil particles.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION

3. Rill erosion - occurs in cultivated fields with

irregular land surfaces. As the rain begins, water
accumulates in depressions, flows along the least
resistance path, and soil particles are eroded,
forming microchannels and rills.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
4. Gully erosion - is the advanced stage of
water erosion, causing gullies and ravines
to grow larger due to prolonged flow.
Overlooked by farmers, gullies increase in
size and shape with further rainfall. Major
causes include steep land slopes, soil
texture, rainfall intensity, land
mismanagement, biotic interference, and
incorrect agricultural practices. Gully
erosion starts when alluvial land's
longitudinal profile becomes too steep
due to sediment deposition. Without
proper control measures, gullies can
extend to nearby areas and engulf the
entire region.
.

TYPES OF SOIL EROSION

5. Stream bank erosion - stream
bank erosion is the removal of soil
from stream banks due to water
flow or scouring. It is a continuous
process in perennial streams,
exacerbated by vegetation
removal, overgrazing, cultivation,
floods, and sloughing. Sloughing
occurs when water subsides after
reaching a peak due to
underground water movement
due to pressure differences.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION

6. Sea-shore erosion - also known as

coastal erosion, occurs when land is
worn away and sediments are
removed by wave action, tidal
currents, or drainage, resulting in
long-term losses or temporary
redistribution of sediments.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
7. Landslide erosion - when
gravity combines with heavy rain
or earthquakes, whole slopes can
slump, slip, or slide. Slips occur
when the soil (topsoil and
subsoil) on slopes becomes
saturated. Unless held by plant
roots to the underlying surface, it
slides downhill, exposing the
underlying material.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
According to Erosion Agents:

2. Wind Erosion – is most often witnessed in dry areas wherein strong winds brush
against various landforms, cutting through them and loosening wind blows. The best
examples of wind erosion are sand dunes, and mushroom rock structures, typically
found in desserts.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
3. Glacial Erosion – also referred to as ice erosion, is common in cold regions at high
altitudes. When soil comes in contact with large moving glaciers, it sticks to the base
of these glaciers. This is eventually transported with the glaciers, and as they start
melting it is deposited in the course of the moving chunks of ice.
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
4. Gravitational Erosion – is not as common a phenomenon as water erosion, it
causes huge damage to natural, as well as man-made structures. It is the mass
movement of soil due to gravitational force. The best examples of this are landslides
and slumps. While landslides and slumps happen within seconds, phenomena such as
soil creep take a longer period for occurrence.

Landslide Slumps
AGENTS OF SOIL EROSION
FACTORS OF AFFECTING SOIL EROSION
 The erosion potential of any area is determined by four principal factors: the characteristics of its soil, its
vegetative cover, its topography, and its climate.

1. Soil Characteristics

 Soil characteristics influencing erosion by rainfall and runoff are those properties that affect the infiltration
capacity of soil and those the resistance of the soil to detachment and transport by falling or flowering water. The
following four characteristics are important in determining soil erodibility.

 Soil Texture (particle size and gradation) – soils containing high percentages of fine sands and silt are normally
the most erodible. As the clay and organic matter content of these soils increase, the erodibility decreases. Clay
acts as a binder for soil particles, thus reducing erodibility.

 Organic Matter Content – Organic material is the “glue” that binds particles together and plays an important part
in preventing soil erosion. Matter is the main source of energy for soil organisms, both plant and animal. It also
influences the infiltration capacity of the soil. Lesser soil organic matter causes deterioration of soil structure and
soil permeability.

 Soil Structure – The way soil particles are held together, affects the soil’s friability, the ease with which soil
particles are detached by raindrops and runoff, and the resistance of the soil to the growth of roots and shoots.

 Soil Permeability – Permeability is the soil’s ability to transmit air and water. Soils that are least subject to
erosion from rainfall and surface runoff are those with high permeability.
FACTORS OF AFFECTING SOIL EROSION

2. Vegetation Cover – Vegetative cover plays an important role in controlling erosion.

It:

 Shields the soil surface from the impact of falling rain

 Holds soil particles in place
 Maintains the soil’s capacity to absorb water
 Reduces the velocity of runoff
 Removes subsurface water between rainfalls through the process of
evapotranspiration.
FACTORS OF AFFECTING SOIL EROSION
3. Topographical Factors

 Among the topographical factors, slope length, steepness, and roughness affect
erodibility. Generally, a longer slope increases the potential for erosion.

 The greatest erosion potential is at the base of the slope, where runoff velocity is the
greatest and runoff concentrates.

 Slope steepness, along with surface roughness, and the amount and intensity of rainfall
control the speed at which runoff flows down a slope.

 The steeper the slope, the faster the water will flow. The faster it flows, the more likely it
will cause erosion and increase sedimentation. Slope accelerates erosion as it increases
the velocity of the flowing water. Small differences in slope make big difference in
damage.

 According to the laws of hydraulics, four times increase in slope doubles the velocity of
flowing water. This doubled velocity can increase the erosive power four times and the
carrying (sediment) capacity by 32 times.
FACTORS OF AFFECTING SOIL EROSION
4. Climate

 The frequency, intensity, and duration of rainfall are fundamental factors in

determining the amount of runoff produced in a given area.

 As both the volume and velocity of runoff increase, the capability of runoff to
detach and transport soil particles also increases.

 Where storms are frequent, intense, or of long duration, erosion risks are high.

 Seasonal temperature changes, as well as rainfall influence the erosion risk.

FACTORS OF AFFECTING SOIL EROSION
5. Deforestation and Burning

 The loss of forest cover removes the natural protection of soils against the sun’s
rays and the direct impact of raindrops. There is a reduction in the infiltration of
water into the soil a simultaneous increase in surface runoff is resulted and the
level of organic material is also reduced.
SCALE OF EROSION
 It measures the extent of erosion. According to the scale of erosion, the erosion
may be classified as under:

a. Micro Erosion (1mm² to 1m²)

 This scale, erosion is controlled largely by the stability of the soil aggregates.
Soil moisture, organic matter content, and the activity of soil fauna,
particularly earthworms, have major influences. Erosion on a small scale, is
identified with sheet erosion and small-scale rill erosion.

b. Plot-scale (1m² to 100m²)

 Erosion at the plot scale is controlled by the processes that generate surface
runoff. These include the infiltration characteristics of the soil and changes in
the micro-topography of the surface related to crust development and surface
roughness. The spatial distribution of crusted and uncrusted areas or
vegetated and bare soil areas determines the locations of runoff and the
patterns of flow and sediment movement over the soil surface.
SCALE OF EROSION
c. Field scale (100m² to 10,000m²)
 There is usually a reasonably well-defined spatial pattern of runoff pathways in
locations such as swales and valley bottoms, separated by areas of either inter-rill
erosion or no erosion. the extent of inter-rill erosion depends on the severity of the
rainfall event so the size of the area contributing to runoff is quite dynamic. The
direction of runoff pathways is often controlled by tillage.

d. Catchment scale (>10,000m²)

 Erosion is generally limited to local slope wash, but with higher rainfall, runoff
pathways develop over the whole hillside with local discharges into the river; with
more extreme events, overland flow, and slope wash may be widespread.
MECHANICS OF SOIL EROSION
Mechanics of soil erosion due to water and wind are discussed below.

a. Mechanics of Water Erosion

 There are three steps for accelerated erosion by water:
 Detachment or loosening of soil particles caused by flowing water, freezing
and thawing of the topsoil, and/or the impact of falling raindrops,
 Transportation of soil particles by floating, rolling, dragging, and/or
splashing and Deposition of transported particles at some places of lower
elevation.
 Rain enhances the translocation of soil through the process of splashing.
Individual raindrops detach soil aggregates and redeposit them as particles.
The dispersed particles may then plug soil pores, reducing water intake
(infiltration). Once the soil dries, these particles develop into a crust at the
soil surface and runoff is further increased.
MECHANICS OF SOIL EROSION
Mechanics of soil erosion due to water and wind are discussed below.

a. Mechanics of Wind Erosion

 Wind erosion occurs when the soil is exposed to the dislodging force of wind.
 These are the initiation of movement, transportation, and deposition.

 Initiation of Movement - The initiation of the movement of soil particles is

caused by several factors acting separately in combination. In the course of
the collision of grains rolling and bumping on the surface, some particles may
be bounced up. It occurs when the wind force or the impact of moving
particles is strong enough to dislodge stationary soil particles.
 Transportation - The transportation of the particles once they are dislodged
takes place in three ways:
MECHANICS OF SOIL EROSION
1. Suspension - The soil particles of less than 0.1 mm in size are subjected to
suspension and around 3 to 40 % of soil weights are carried by the suspension
method of soil transport under the wind erosion. Finer suspended particles are
moved parallel to the ground surface and upward.

2. Saltation - In saltation soil particles of medium size (0.10-0.5 mm diameter) are

carried by wind in a series of short bounces. These bounces are caused by the
direct pressure of the wind on soil particles. Depending on soil type, about 50 to
75% of the total weight of soil is carried in saltation.

3. Surface Creep - The large particles that are too heavy to be lifted into the air are
moved through a process called surface creep. In this process, the particles are
rolled across the surface after coming into contact with the soil particles in
saltation. In this process, the largest of the erosive particles having diameters
between 0.5 to 2 mm are transported and around 5 to 25% of the total soil
weights are carried in this fashion.
MECHANICS OF SOIL EROSION

 Desposition - Deposition of the particles occurs when the gravitational force is

greater than the forces holding the particles in the air. Deposition could occur
when the wind velocity is decreased due to surface obstructions or other
natural causes.
MECHANICS OF SOIL EROSION CONTROL
 The different geological actions generated by the flowing water over the land
surface by which soil erosion takes place may be described below.
(a) Hydraulic Action - Water compresses the soil, causing the air in voids to exert
hydraulic pressure, leading to soil detachment. This process, particularly in loose
soil, is more effective and causes soil particles to be scoured by water.
(b) Abrasion – Geologic action increases soil particle abrasive power in running
water, leading to increased soil particle erosion, resulting in the river bank and
valley bottom erosion.
(c) Attrition - Water erosion occurs when large rock fragments, boulders, or
pebbles in moving water collide with each other, causing mechanical breakdown
of loads and abrasion effects on the bottom and banks of the water course.
MECHANICS OF SOIL EROSION CONTROL
(d) Solution - Erosion occurs due to chemical action between water and soil/rocks, causing
soil/rocks to dissolve in water and be carried away along the water flow.
(e) Transportation - It is the process by which soil particles that are dissolved in the running
water are carried away from one place to another. The transportation of particles depends
upon the velocity of the running water load present in the water, impediments/obstacles
present in the flow path of water, and the carrying capacity of running water. During water
erosion, the process of soil transportation by running water is completed under the following
forms:
i) Solution – The water-soluble contents present in the water are transported by the water
in solution form. Normally, certain dissolved chemicals such as calcium carbonate, etc.
derived from rocks are transported in solution form by the running water.
ii) Suspension - The suspension process involves the transportation of finer soil particles
present in suspension form in the flowing water.
iii) Saltation and Surface Creep - The saltation mechanism transports medium-sized soil
particles mixed in water, forming mud over stream beds. Saltation and surface creep
contribute to sediment load, while surface creep action transports coarser particles
through jumping, collision, and creeping.
MECHANICS OF SOIL EROSION CONTROL
(f) Deposition - The deposition of load mixed in the running water takes place
under the following conditions:
i) The force acting in the direction of water flow and responsible for the
transport of the load becomes much less compared to the resisting force
acting in the opposite direction, and then the materials get deposited on the
bed.
ii) Presence of surface obstruction such as trees, shrubs, etc. in the flow path of
running water tends to reduce the velocity of running water and as a result,
the soil load mixed in the water gets deposited.
 Whenever there is meandering of the river or the stream, the velocity of flow
on the concave side of the river reduces drastically and deposition of the load
occurs on that side.
AGRONOMICAL MEASURES OF WATER
EROSION CONTROL
 Soil conservation involves minimizing soil deterioration and losses through
agronomical measures. These techniques reduce raindrop impact, soil erosion,
and surface runoff by increasing infiltration rates and reducing surface runoff,
making them cost-effective and long-lasting.

• Contour Cropping - is a conservation

farming method used on slopes to
control soil loss due to water erosion. It
involves planting crops across the
slope, reducing runoff water velocity
and inducing more infiltration. Effective
on slopes between 2 and 10%.

(Source: www.studyblue.com)
.

AGRONOMICAL MEASURES OF WATER

EROSION CONTROL

• Strip cropping - Strip cropping is a

farming practice that involves growing
inter-tilled crops like root crops and
cereals, and close-growing crops like
fodder and grasses. This intensive
farming method includes contour strip
farming, cover cropping, conservation
tillage, and suitable crop rotation. Crop
rotation with inter tilled and close
growing crops conserves soil moisture
and reduces soil erosion
.

AGRONOMICAL MEASURES OF WATER

EROSION CONTROL

I) Contour strip cropping - in contour strip cropping, alternate strips of the crop are
sown more or less following the contours, similar to contouring. Suitable rotation
of crops and tillage operations are followed during the farming operations.

II) Field strip cropping - Strip cropping involves placing uniform strips across slopes
and wind direction to prevent soil erosion, especially in irregular topography and
curvy contour lines, to protect against water and wind erosion.

III) Buffer strip cropping - Buffer strip cropping involves uniform crop strips for
smooth farm machinery operations, with correction strips for legumes and
grasses, providing protection and effective soil erosion control.
.

AGRONOMICAL MEASURES OF WATER

EROSION CONTROL

• Mulching - Mulches reduce rain

splash, evaporation, weed control, soil
temperature, and microbial activity.
They break raindrop energy, prevent
soil structure dissipation, and obstruct
runoff flow, preventing erosion and
improving infiltration capacity.
.

AGRONOMICAL MEASURES OF WATER

EROSION CONTROL
 Types of mulching material:
• To protect the land from erosion different types of materials are used as listed
below.
1. Cut grasses or foliage
2. Straw materials
3. Wood chips
4. Sawdust
5. Papers
6. Stones
7. Glass wools
8. Metal foils
9. Cellophanes
10. Plastics
.

AGRONOMICAL MEASURES OF WATER

EROSION CONTROL
 The mulches may be broadly classified into the following five types:

1. Synthetic mulch - it includes organic and inorganic liquids that are sprayed on the
soil surface to form a thin film for controlling the various atmospheric agents
acting on the soil surface. The different synthetic mulching materials are resins,
asphalt emulsions, latex and cut-back asphalt, canvas, etc.

2. Petroleum mulch - Petroleum mulches, available as asphalt-water emulsions, are

easy to apply and less expensive. They form a thin, continuous film on the soil surface,
promoting uniform seed germination and vigorous seedling growth. Ideal surfaces are
stable against erosion, porous, insoluble, and weather-resistant, ensuring long-lasting
vegetation establishment.
.

AGRONOMICAL MEASURES OF WATER

EROSION CONTROL
3. Conventional mulch - Hay or straw mulches are more effective than petroleum
mulches in conserving moisture, reducing soil temperature fluctuations, and
protecting the soil from raindrop impacts. They increase infiltration and reduce runoff
and soil erosion. They absorb insolation during the day and cool down at night. Paper
mulches increase soil temperature and promote earthworm activity, but caution must
be taken against toxic chemicals leached from treated papers, which can have toxic
effects on plants.

4. Stone mulch - Stone mulching in arid zones conserves moisture and reduces wind
erosion. Rubble mulch, a combination of stones and bricks, offers better moisture
conservation compared to other methods.

5. Organic mulch - Organic mulch, including tree branches, leaves, and grasses, is
superior to artificial mulches in moisture conservation, reducing evaporation, and
runoff. It's effective for frequent rainfall but not for scattered rains. Resistant mulches
last longer.
ILL EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION
 The soil erosion adversely affects the livelihood of the people in one way or
another. The major losses and problems that occur due to soil erosion from
various agents are listed below.
• Siltation of rivers.
• Siltation of irrigation channels and reservoirs. Problems in crop irrigation and
the consequent need to conserve the water.
• Damage to sea coast and formation of dunes.
• Disease and public health hazards.
• Soils eroded by water get deposited on river beds, thus increasing their level
and causing floods. These floods sometimes have various extreme effects,
such as killing humans and animals and damaging various buildings.
• Soil erosion decreases the moisture supply by soil to the plants for their
growth. It also affects the activity of soil micro-organisms thus deteriorating
the crop yield.
ILL EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION
• The top layer of soil contains most of the organic matter and nutrients, loss of
this soil reduces soil fertility and affects its structure badly.
• Wind erosion is very selective, carrying the finest particles - particularly
organic matter, clay, and loam for many kilometers. Wind erosion causes the
loss of fertile soils from highly productive farming areas.
• The most spectacular forms are dunes which move as the wind takes them,
even burying oases and ancient cities.
• Sheets of sand traveling close to the ground (30 to 50 meters) can degrade
crops.
• Wind erosion reduces the capacity of the soil to store nutrients and water,
thus making the environment drier.
Thank you for
listening.
GOD BLESS!