FHN 2

Carbohydrate
• Carbohydrates hold a special place in human nutrition.
• They provide the largest single source of energy in the diet and satisfy
our instinctual desire for sweetness.
• Carbohydrates are an important source of energy in all human diets.
• They contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• They may be simple and complex molecules.
• They are produced in plants by the process of photosynthesis.
• Important food carbohydrates include simple sugars, dextrins, starches,
celluloses, hemicelluloses, pectins, and gums.

• They are an important source of energy or fiber in the diet, and they
also are important constituents of foods because of their functional
properties.
• Carbohydrates may be used as sweeteners, thickeners, stabilizers,
gelling agents, and fat replacers.
Types of carbohydrate
• There are various different carbohydrates but they may be divided into
three main groups according to the size of their molecules. These are:
• Monosaccharides,
• Disaccharides,
• Polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars, and they have the general formula
CnH2nOn. The most common ones contain six carbon atoms.
Disaccharides contain two sugar units, trisaccharides contain three,
oligosaccharides contain several units.
Polysaccharides are complex polymers containing as many as several
thousand units linked together to form a molecule.
Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides are simple carbohydrates containing between three and
eight carbon atoms, but only those with five or six carbon atoms are
common.
• The three most important members of this group are:
• Glucose,
• Fructose,
• Galactose.
• Two of the most important ones in foods are the six-carbon sugars
glucose and fructose.
• These have the general formula C6H12O6.
GLUCOSE:
• It is known as an aldose sugar because it contains an aldehyde group
(CHO) located on the first carbon atom of the chain.
• Glucose is found in varying amounts in fruits and vegetables.
• Large amounts are found in fruits such as grapes and smaller
quantities in vegetables such as young peas and carrots.
• It is also found in the blood of animals.
FRUCTOSE:
• This is chemically similar to glucose except that the arrangement
of the atoms within the molecule is slightly different.
• Fructose is found, together with glucose, in many fruits and in
honey.
GALACTOSE:
• This sugar is also chemically similar to glucose.
• It does not exist as such in foods but is produced when lactose, a
disaccharide, is broken down during digestion.

Disaccharides
• These sugars have the general formula C12H22O11.
• They are formed when two monosaccharide molecules combine
with the elimination of a water molecule.
• C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 ► C12H22O11+ H20
• This is an example of a condensation reaction, i.e. a reaction in
which two small molecules combine to form one larger molecule
with the elimination of a small molecule, usually water, from
between them.
• FORMATION OF DISACCHARIDES
Glucose + Fructose ► Sucrose + Water
Glucose + Galactose ► Lactose + Water
Glucose + Glucose ► Maltose + Water
SUCROSE:
• This is ordinary household sugar and is produced in plants by the
condensation of glucose and fructose.
• Sucrose is found in many fruits and vegetables, some of which, e.g.
sugar cane and sugar beet, contain relatively large quantities. It is
from cane and beet that sugar is extracted commercially.
LACTOSE:
• This sugar is formed by the condensation of glucose and galactose.
• It is found only in milk, where it is the sole carbohydrate.
MALTOSE:
• A molecule of maltose is formed by the condensation of two glucose
molecules.
• During the germination of sprouting of barley, starch is broken
down into maltose.
• Malt, a vital ingredient in brewing, is produced by this process.
Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides are condensation polymers of monosaccharides and
are made up of many monosaccharide molecules joined together,
with the elimination of one water molecule at each link.
• They have the general formula (C6H10O5)n, where 'n' represents a
large number.
STARCH:
• Starch is the major food reserve of plants.
• It is in fact a mixture of two polysaccharides :
• Amylose,
• Amylopectin.
CELLULOSE:
• Cellulose is another polysaccharide which consists of long chains of
glucose units.
• The basic structure is similar to that of starch but the glucose units
are linked in a different way.
• Man does not possess enzymes capable of breaking this type of
linkage and therefore is unable to make use of cellulose as a food.
• However, cellulose is important for providing fibre, roughage or
bulk in the diet.
• Dietary fibre is necessary for the efficient passage of food through
the alimentary canal and the regular emptying of the bowel.

GLYCOGEN:
• This is a carbohydrate found only in animals.
• It can be thought of as the carbohydrate reserve in animals in the same
way as starch is the carbohydrate reserve in plants.
• Like amylopectin it is composed of branched chains of glucose units.
• However, unlike amylopectin it is soluble in water.
• Animals are capable of storing glycogen in muscles and in the liver
for short periods of time.
• When required, the glycogen is converted to glucose and used by the
body for the provision of energy

PECTIN:
• Pectin is a complex mixture of polysaccharides found in many fruits and
some root vegetables.
• Apples and the peel of citrus fruits are particularly rich in pectin.
• Its main importance is as a gelling agent, particularly in jam making.
• The addition of an acid, for example lemon juice, increases the gelling effect
of pectin.
• This is especially useful in jams made from fruits with a low pectin content
such as strawberries.
• In some instances the presence of pectin may be undesirable; in fruit juices
and wines, pectin produces an unacceptable haze.
• Unwanted pectin may be removed by the addition of pectolytic enzymes.

AGAR AND ALGINATES:
• Agar and alginate are both polysaccharides which are extracted
from seaweed.
• They have no nutritive value but, like pectin, they are capable of
forming gels.
• They are used in the manufacture of many foods, including ice-
cream and jellies.
• Also, agar is used in the preparation of microbiological media.
Role of carbohydrate in human body
• ENERGY: glucose is oxidized in the cells. It is broken down in a
series of reactions and energy is released when this takes place. 1 gram
of carbohydrate provides 16 KJ (4 kcal).
• STORAGE: glucose in excess of energy requirements can be:
• Converted into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles as a

readily available source of energy.
• Converted into fat and stored all over the body in the fatty cells of the
adipose tissues.
• An average adult has about 400 g of stored glycogen and about 12 kg
of stored fat.
PROTEIN SPARING:
• A certain amount of carbohydrate is necessary in the diet since it has
a 'protein-sparing' function.
• If the diet is low in carbohydrate a higher percentage of protein than
is usual will be used to provide energy.
• Since the major function of protein is to provide material for growth
and repair of tissues, a moderate carbohydrate intake ensures that
most of the dietary protein can be used for growth purposes.
Sources of Carbohydrates
• Cereal foods account for 49% of the total carbohydrate content of the
average British diet.
• Sugar and preserves account for 21 % of the total carbohydrate content of the
average British diet.
• Vegetables account for 13% of the total carbohydrate content of the average
British diet.
• Fruit accounts for 4% of the total carbohydrate content of the average British
diet.
• Milk and related foods account for 8% of the total carbohydrate content of
the average British diet.
Dietary fiber
• Dietary fiber is the material in plant foods that is resistant to
breakdown by enzymes in the alimentary canal and is therefore not
absorbed.
• It consists mainly of cellulose together with other polysaccharide-

based compounds such as lignin and hemicelluloses.
• It is also suggested that a high fibre diet slows the rate of glucose
and fat absorption from the small intestine and thereby reduces the
risk of diabetes and arterial disease.
Recommended daily intake
• The World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture
Organization, jointly recommend the national dietary guidelines.
• They recommend that carbohydrates should give us 55 to 75 percent
of the total energy requirements out of which only 10 percent should
be directly from sugars or simpler carbohydrates.
Energy Value of Carbohydrates
• Dietary carbohydrate has traditionally been assigned an energy value of 4
kcal/g (17 kJ/g) though when carbohydrates are expressed as monosaccharides
the value of 4 kcal/g (15.7 kJ/g) is usually used.
• However, since resistant starch and some oligosaccharides are not digested in
the small intestine and the process of fermentation is less metabolically
efficient than when digestion and absorption are completed in the small
intestine, it is clear that these carbohydrates are providing the body with less
energy.
• The energy value of all carbohydrate requires reassessment, but until this has
been carried out the FAO/WHO consultation recommends that the energy
value of carbohydrates which reach the colon be set at 2 kcal/g (8 kJ/g).

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Carbohydrate

• Carbohydrates hold a special place in human nutrition.

our instinctual desire for sweetness.

• Carbohydrates are an important source of energy in all human diets.

• They contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

• They may be simple and complex molecules.

• They are produced in plants by the process of photosynthesis.

• Important food carbohydrates include simple sugars, dextrins, starches,

celluloses, hemicelluloses, pectins, and gums.

• This is chemically similar to glucose except that the arrangement

of the atoms within the molecule is slightly different.

• Fructose is found, together with glucose, in many fruits and in

• This sugar is also chemically similar to glucose.

• It does not exist as such in foods but is produced when lactose, a

disaccharide, is broken down during digestion.

• Cellulose is another polysaccharide which consists of long chains of

are linked in a different way.

• Man does not possess enzymes capable of breaking this type of

linkage and therefore is unable to make use of cellulose as a food.

• However, cellulose is important for providing fibre, roughage or

bulk in the diet.

• Dietary fibre is necessary for the efficient passage of food through

the alimentary canal and the regular emptying of the bowel.

• This is a carbohydrate found only in animals.

• It can be thought of as the carbohydrate reserve in animals in the same

way as starch is the carbohydrate reserve in plants.

• Like amylopectin it is composed of branched chains of glucose units.

• However, unlike amylopectin it is soluble in water.

• Animals are capable of storing glycogen in muscles and in the liver

for short periods of time.

• When required, the glycogen is converted to glucose and used by the

body for the provision of energy

• Pectin is a complex mixture of polysaccharides found in many fruits and

some root vegetables.

• Its main importance is as a gelling agent, particularly in jam making.

• In some instances the presence of pectin may be undesirable; in fruit juices

and wines, pectin produces an unacceptable haze.

• Unwanted pectin may be removed by the addition of pectolytic enzymes.

• Converted into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles as a

• It consists mainly of cellulose together with other polysaccharide-

kcal/g (17 kJ/g) though when carbohydrates are expressed as monosaccharides

the value of 4 kcal/g (15.7 kJ/g) is usually used.

the small intestine and the process of fermentation is less metabolically

value of carbohydrates which reach the colon be set at 2 kcal/g (8 kJ/g).

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