Energy Transport by

Heat, Work and Mass

 Energy of a System
• Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause change.
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as
• thermal,
• mechanical,
• kinetic,
• potential,
• electric,
• magnetic,
• chemical, and
• Nuclear
• Their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system.
• The total energy of a system on a unit mass:
• In thermodynamic analysis, energy can be group in to two forms:
• Macroscopic
• Microscopic

• Microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular

structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity, and
they are independent of outside reference frames.
• The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the internal
energy of a system and is denoted by U.
• Example:-
» Latent energy
» Chemical energy
» Nuclear energy
» Sensible energy
• Macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and
potential energies.

– The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame is called kinetic energy (KE) and is expressed as
V 2 (kJ ) V2 (kJ / kg )
KE  m ke 
2 2
– The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational
field is called potential energy (PE) and is expressed as
PE  mgz (kJ ) pe  gz (kJ / kg )
• The total energy of a system consists of the kinetic, potential, and
internal energies and is expressed as
V2
E  U  KE  PE E  U  m  mgz
2
V2
e  u  ke  pe e  u   gz
2
• Most closed systems remain stationary during a process and thus
experience no change in their kinetic and potential energies.
• Closed systems whose velocity and elevation of the center of gravity
remain constant during a process are frequently referred to as
stationary systems.
• The change in the total energy E of a stationary system is identical to
the change in its internal energy U.
 Energy transport by heat and work
• Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in two
distinct forms: heat and work.
 Energy transport by heat
• Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference.

• A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an

adiabatic process.
• There are two ways a process can be adiabatic:
• Well insulated
• Both the system and the surroundings are at the same
temperature
• As a form of energy, heat has energy units, kJ
• The amount of heat transferred during the process between two
states (states 1 and 2) is denoted by Q12, or just Q
• Sometimes it is desirable to know the rate of heat transfer (the
amount of heat transferred per unit time)
• Heat is transferred by three mechanisms:
• conduction,
• convection, and
• radiation.
• Heat transfer per unit mass of a system is denoted q and is
determined from

Q
q (kJ / kg )
m
 Energy Transport by Work
• Work is also a form of energy transferred like heat and,
therefore, has energy units kJ.
• The work done during a process between states 1 and 2 is
denoted by W12, or simply W.
• The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted by
. The unit of power is kJ/s, or kW.
• The work done per unit mass of a system is denoted by w and
is expressed as
W Example:-
w (kJ / kg )
m A rising piston
A rotating shaft
 Sign convention for energy transported by heat and work
• Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete
description of a heat or work interaction requires the specification of
both the magnitude and direction.
• The generally accepted formal sign convention for heat and work
interactions is as follows:
• heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are
positive;
• heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are
negative.
 Boundary work
• The work associated with a moving boundary is called boundary
work.
• The expansion and compression work is often called boundary work.
• The area under the process curve on a P-V diagram is equal, in
magnitude, to the work done during a quasi-equilibrium expansion
or compression process of a closed system.
2
Wb    Wb
1

F
 Wb  Fd s  Ads  PdV
A
2
Wb   PdV
1
2 2
Area  A   dA   PdV
1 1
 Some typical process
• Boundary work at constant volume process

If the volume is held constant,

=0
and the boundary work
equation becomes
2
Wb   PdV  0
1
• Boundary work at constant pressure

If the pressure is held constant

the boundary work equation
becomes

2 2
Wb   PdV  P  dV  P(V2  V1 )
1 1
 • Boundary work at constant temperature (Isothermal)
If the temperature of an ideal gas system held constant, then the equation
of state provides the pressure volume relation.
mRT
P
V

2 2 mRT
Wb   PdV Wb   dV
1 1 V

mRT  C  PV
2 dv V2
Wb  C  Wb  Cln
1 V V1

V2 V2
Wb  mRTln  PV
1 1 ln
V1 V1
 Polytropic Process
• During actual expansion and compression processes of gases, pressure
and volume are often related by PVn = C. where n and C are constants
2
Wb   PdV
1
2  V2 n 1  V1 n 1  2 2  PV
PV
Wb   CV  n dV  C    1 1

 n  1  1 n
1

mR (T2  T1 )
Wb 
1 n

• For the special case of n = 1 the system is isothermal process and the
boundary work becomes
2 V2

2
Wb   PdV  CV  n dV  PV ln
1 1 V1
 Spring Work
• When the length of the spring changes by a differential
amount dx under the influence of a force F, the work done is
2
 Wspring   Fdx
1
F  kx
1
Wspring  k ( x22  x12 )
2
 Energy transferred by Mass
• When mass enters a control volume, the energy of the control
volume increase because the entering mass carries some
energy with it.
• when some mass leaves the control volume, the energy
contained within the control volume decreases because some
leaving mass takeout some energy within it.
Example
1.A gas is contained with in a piston cylinder device
initially at 20MPa and 0.02m3. if expands to a
final volume of 0.06m3 under the following
process
a) constant pressure
b) PV=const
c) PV1.4=const
Determine the total work done in each process
2.A frictionless piston–cylinder device contains
2 kg of nitrogen at 100 kPa and 300 K.
Nitrogen is now compressed slowly according
to the relation PV1.4=constant until it reaches a
final temperature of 360 K. Calculate the work
input during this process.
3.A gas is compressed from an initial volume of 0.42 m3 to a
final volume of 0.12 m3. During the quasi-equilibrium
process, the pressure changes with volume according to
the relation P=aV+b, where a=-1200kPa/m3 and
b=600kPa. Calculate the work done during this process
(a) by plotting the process on a P-V diagram and finding
the area under the process curve and (b)by performing
the necessary integrations.
Ans: - 82.8 KJ
4.A piston–cylinder device contains 50 kg of water at 250 kPa
and 25°C. The cross-sectional area of the piston is 0.1 m2.
Heat is now transferred to the water, causing part of it to
evaporate and expand. When the volume reaches 0.2 m3, the
piston reaches a linear spring whose spring constant is 100
kN/m. More heat is transferred to the water until the piston
rises 20 cm more. Determine (a) the final pressure and
temperature and (b) the work done during this process. Also,
show the process on a P-V diagram.
Ans: (a) 450 kPa,147.9°C, (b) 44.5 kJ
5. 1-kg of water that is initially at 90oC with a quality of 10
percent occupies a spring-loaded piston–cylinder device, such as
that in Fig. below. This device is now heated until the pressure
rises to 800 kPa and the temperature is 250oC. Determine the total
work produced during this process, in kJ. Answer: 24.5 kJ