Module 1

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES
Alubijid | Balubal I Cagayan de Oro | Claveria | Jasaan | Oroquieta | Panaon I Villanueva
MODULE 1: Cell Cycle

MODULE 1: Key roles in Cell Division:

- The ability of organisms to produce more of
Cell Cycle
their own kind best distinguishes living things from
nonliving matter.
- The continuity of life is based on the reproduction

of cells, or cell division
- In unicellular organisms, division of one cell

reproduces the entire organism
MODULE 1: Multicellular organisms depend on cell division for:

Cell Cycle
Development Growth Repair

MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle Cell division is an integral
part of the cell cycle, the life
of a cell from formation to
its own division.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material:

Genome
- All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell’s genome.
- It is consist of a single DNA molecule (common in prokaryotic cells)
or a number of DNA molecules (common in eukaryotic cells)
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material

MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
1. Genome
- All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell’s genome.
- It is consist of a single DNA molecule
(common in prokaryotic cells) or a number of DNA
molecules (common in eukaryotic cells)
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
2. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

- An organic chemical that contains genetic information and
instructions for protein synthesis. It is found in most cells of
every organism.
- It is a key part of reproduction in which genetic heredity occurs
through the passing down of DNA from parent or parents to
offspring.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
3. Chromosomes
- A thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal
and plant cells.
- Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
- DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into chromosomes
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
4. Chromatin
- It is a substance within a chromosome consisting of DNA and
protein.
- The major proteins in chromatin are histones, which help
package the DNA in a compact form that fits in the cell nucleus.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
5. Cells
5.1 Somatic cells
- A non-reproductive cells have two sets of chromosomes
5.2 Gametes
- A reproductive cells: sperm and eggs have half as many
chromosomes as somatic cells
MODULE 1: Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division

Cell Cycle
1. In preparation for cell division, DNA is
replicated and the chromosomes condense
2. Each duplicated chromosome has two sister

chromatids (joined copies of the original
chromosome), which separate
during cell division
MODULE 1: Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division

Cell Cycle
3. The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the
duplicated chromosome, where the two
chromatids are most closely attached
4. During cell division, the two sister chromatids of
each duplicated chromosome separate and
move into two nuclei
5. Once separate, the chromatids are called
chromosomes
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Eukaryotic cell division consists of:

1. Mitosis, the division of the genetic
material in the nucleus
2. Cytokinesis, the division of the

cytoplasm
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Interphase
- Cell growth and copying of chromosomes in
preparation for cell division.
- Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can
be divided into sub-phases:
MODULE 1: 1. G1 phase (“first gap”)

- It refers to the gap between cell
Cell Cycle division and DNA synthesis.
- A time when the cell increases its

supply proteins, increases the
number or organelles(such as
mitochondria and ribosomes), and
grows in size.
MODULE 1: 2. S phase (“synthesis”)

- When DNA synthesis (replication)
Cell Cycle actually occurs.
- At the beginning of of S phase each
chromosome is single.
At the end of this phase, after the DNA

replication, the Chromosomes are double,
each consisting of two sister Chromatids.
MODULE 1: 3. G2 phase (“second gap”)

Cell Cycle - It spans the time from the
completion of DNA synthesis
to the onset of cell division
- it is the time for metabolic activity

and proteins synthesized are essential
to the cell division.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle The cell grows during all three
phases, but chromosomes
are duplicated only during the
S phase.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MITOSIS
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Mitosis
- The number of nucleus and its
content, including the duplicated
chromosomes, divide and are evenly
distributed to form two daughter
nuclei.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
It is conventionally divided into five phases:

1. Prophase
2.Prometaphase
3. Metaphase
4. Anaphase
5. Telophase
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Cytokinesis
- It is the physical process of cell division, which divides the
cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells. It occurs
concurrently with two types of nuclear division called mitosis
and meiosis, which occur in animal cells.
- It overlaps the latter stages of mitosis.

MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Cytokinesis
- The combination of mitosis and cytokinesis produces
two genetically identical daughter cells, each with single
nucleus, surrounding cytoplasm, and plasma membrane.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Mitotic Phase (the M phase)

MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1:
1. Interphase
Cell Cycle
- The period of cell growth when the synthesizes
new molecules and organelles.
- The cell looks much the same as it does
throughout interphase
- Nonetheless, by the G2 stage the cell has
doubled much of its earlier contents and the
cytoplasm contains two centrosome.
MODULE 1: 1. Interphase
Cell Cycle - Within the nucleus, the chromosomes are
duplicated individually because they are still in
the form of loosely packed chromatin.
- The nucleus also contains one or more

nucleoli, an indication that the cell is actively
making proteins.
MODULE 1: 2. Prophase
- Changes occur in both the nucleus and the
Cell Cycle
cytoplasm
- Within the nucleus, the chromatin fibers
become more tightly coiled and folded,
forming discrete chromosomes that can be seen
with the light microscope
- The nucleoli disappear.
MODULE 1: 2. Prophase
Cell Cycle - Each duplicated chromosomes appears as two
identical sister chromatids joined together with the
narrow waist at the centromere.
- In the cytoplasm, the mitotic spindle begins to
form as microtubules rapidly grow out from the
centrosome, which begin to move away from each
other.
-Late in prophase, the nuclear envelope breaks into
fragments
MODULE 1:
3. Prometaphase
Cell Cycle
- With the nuclear envelope is gone,
microtubules emerging from the centrosome at
the pole (ends) of the spindle can reach the
chromosomes, now highly condensed.
- At the centromere region, each sister
chromatid has protein structure called kinetochore.
3. Prometaphase
MODULE 1: - Some of the spindle microtubules attach to
Cell Cycle the kinetochores, throwing the chromosomes
agitated motion.
- Other spindle microtubules make contact
with microtubules coming from the opposite
pole.
- Forces exerted by protein “motors”
associated with spindle microtubules move the
chromosomes toward the center of the cell.
MODULE 1: 4. Metaphase
Cell Cycle - Mitotic spindle is fully formed, with its
poles at the opposite ends of the cell.
- The chromosomes convene on the

metaphase plate, an imaginary place in
equidistant between the two
poles of the spindle.
MODULE 1: 4. Metaphase
- Centromere of all the chromosomes are
Cell Cycle lined up on the on the metaphase plate.
- For each chromosomes, the kinetochores
of the two sister chromatids face opposite poles
of the spindle.
- The microtubules attached to a particular
chromatid all come from one pole of the
spindle, and those attached to its sister
chromatid come from the opposite pole.
5. Anaphase
MODULE 1: - It begins when the two centromeres of each
Cell Cycle chromosome come apart, separating the sister
chromatids.
- Once separate, each sister chromatid is
considered a full-pledged daughter chromosomes.
- Motor proteins of the kinetochore,
powered by the ATP, “walk” the daughter
chromosomes centromere first along the
microtubules toward opposite poles of the cell.
MODULE 1: 5. Anaphase
- The spindle microtubules attached to the
Cell Cycle
kinetochore shorten.
- The spindle microtubules attached to
chromosomes lengthen.
- The poles are moved farther apart,
elongating the cell.
- When it is over and complete collections
of chromosomes have reached the two
poles of the cell.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle 6. Telophase
- It is roughly the reverse of prophase
- The cell elongated that started in anaphase
continues
- Daughter nuclei appear at the two poles of the
cell as nuclear envelopes form around the
chromosomes.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle 6. Telophase
- Chromatin fiber of each chromosomes uncoils,
and nuclei reappear.
- Mitotic spindle disappears and equal division
of one nucleus into two genetically identical
daughter nuclei, is now finished.
6.1 Cytokinesis
MODULE 1:
- The division of cytoplasm, usually
Cell Cycle occurs along the telophase, with two
daughter cells completely
separating soon after the end of mitosis.
- In animals, cytokinesis involves a

cleavage furrow, which pinches the cell
into two.
MODULE 1: Binary Fission in Bacteria

Cell Cycle - Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea)
reproduce by a type of cell division called
binary fission.
- In binary fission, the chromosome

replicates (beginning at the origin of
replication), and the two daughter
chromosomes actively move apart.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1: The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular

control system:
Cell Cycle
1. The frequency of cell division varies with the type
of cell
2. These differences result from regulation at the
molecular level
3. Cancer cells manage to escape the usual controls
on the cell cycle
MODULE 1: The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular

control system:
Cell Cycle
4. The cell cycle appears to be driven by specific
chemical signals present in the cytoplasm
5. Some evidence for this hypothesis comes from
experiments in which cultured mammalian cells at
different phases of the cell cycle were fused to
form a single cell with two nuclei
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
The Cell Cycle Control System

MODULE 1: The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed
Cell Cycle by a distinct cell cycle control system, which is
similar to a clock
The cell cycle control system is regulated by both

internal and external controls
The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell

cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
The Cell Cycle Control System

MODULE 1: For many cells, the G1 checkpoint seems to be the most
Cell Cycle important .
If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, it

will usually complete the S, G2, and M phases and divide
If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit
the cycle, switching into a non-dividing state called the
G0 phase.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
The Cell Cycle Clock: Cyclins and Cyclin-Dependent

MODULE 1: Kinases
Cell Cycle
Two types of regulatory proteins are involved in cell cycle
control: cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)
Cdks activity fluctuates during the cell cycle because it is

controled by cyclins, so named because their concentrations vary
with the cell cycle
MPF (maturation-promoting factor) is a cyclin-Cdk complex that

triggers a cell’s passage past the G2 checkpoint into the M phase
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Stop and Go Signs:

MODULE 1:Internal and External Signals at the Checkpoints
Cell Cycle An example of an internal signal is that kinetochores not
attached to spindle microtubules send a molecular signal
that delays anaphase
Some external signals are growth factors, proteins

released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide
For example, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)

stimulates the division of human fibroblast cells in culture
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1: A clear example of external signals is density-

dependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop
Cell Cycle dividing
Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence,

in which they must be attached to a substratum in
order to divide
Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent

inhibition nor anchorage dependence
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells

MODULE 1: Cancer cells do not respond normally to the
Cell Cycle body’s control mechanisms
Cancer cells may not need growth factors to

grow and divide
They may make their own growth factor
They may convey a growth factor’s signal
without the presence of the growth factor
They may have an abnormal cell cycle
control system
A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell by a process

MODULE 1: called transformation.
Cell Cycle Cancer cells that are not eliminated by the immune
system form tumors, masses of abnormal cells within
otherwise normal tissue.
If abnormal cells remain only at the original site, the lump
is called a benign tumor.
Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and can
metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the
body, where they may form additional tumors.
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MEIOSIS
Sexual Life Cycles
Overview: Variations on a Theme

MODULE 1: Living organisms are distinguished by their ability
Cell Cycle to reproduce their own kind
Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and
variation
Heredity is the transmission of traits from one
generation to the next
Variation is demonstrated by the differences in
appearance that offspring show from
parents and siblings
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1: Offspring acquire genes from parents

Cell Cycle by inheriting chromosomes
In a literal sense, children do not inherit

particular physical traits from their parents.
It is genes that are actually inherited.

MODULE 1: Inheritance of Genes

Cell Cycle Genes are the units of heredity, and are made
up of segments of DNA
Genes are passed to the next generation
via reproductive cells called gametes (sperm
and eggs)
Each gene has a specific location called a locus
on a certain chromosome
Most DNA is packaged into chromosomes
MODULE 1: Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

Cell Cycle
In asexual reproduction, a single individual passes
genes to its offspring without the fusion of gametes
A clone is a group of genetically identical
individuals from the same parent
In sexual reproduction, two parents give rise to

offspring that have unique combinations of genes
inherited from the two parents
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1: Fertilization and meiosis alternate in

Cell Cycle sexual life cycles
A life cycle is the generation-to-

generation sequence of stages in the
reproductive history of an organism
Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells

MODULE 1:
Human somatic cells (any cell other than a gamete)
Cell Cycle have 23 pairs of chromosomes
A karyotype is an ordered display of the pairs of

chromosomes from a cell
The two chromosomes in each pair are called

homologous chromosomes, or homologs
Chromosomes in a homologous pair are the same length

and shape and carry genes controlling the same inherited
characters
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
The sex chromosomes, which determine the sex of

MODULE 1: the individual, are called X and Y.
Cell Cycle
Human females have a homologous pair of X
chromosomes (XX)
Human males have one X and one Y chromosome
The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called

autosomes
MODULE 1: Each pair of homologous chromosomes includes one

chromosome from each parent
Cell Cycle
The 46 chromosomes in a human somatic cell are
two sets of 23: one from the mother and one from
the father
A diploid cell (2n) has two sets of chromosomes

For humans, the diploid number is 46 (2n = 46)
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
In a cell in which DNA synthesis has occurred,
each chromosome is replicated
Each replicated chromosome consists of two

identical sister chromatids
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1: A gamete (sperm or egg) contains a single set of

Cell Cycle
chromosomes, and is haploid (n)
For humans, the haploid number is 23 (n = 23)
Each set of 23 consists of 22 autosomes and a single sex

chromosome
In an unfertilized egg (ovum), the sex chromosome is X

In a sperm cell, the sex chromosome may be either X or Y
Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life

MODULE 1:
Cycle
Cell Cycle Fertilization is the union of gametes (the
sperm and the egg)
The fertilized egg is called a zygote and
has one set of chromosomes from
each parent
The zygote produces somatic cells by mitosis

and develops into an adult
MODULE 1: At sexual maturity, the ovaries and testes produce

Cell Cycle haploid gametes
Gametes are the only types of human cells produced
by meiosis, rather than mitosis
Meiosis results in one set of chromosomes in
each gamete
Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles

to maintain chromosome number
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle The Variety of Sexual Life Cycles
The alternation of meiosis and fertilization is
common to all organisms that reproduce
sexually
The three main types of sexual life cycles

differ in the timing of meiosis and fertilization
MODULE 1:
Gametes are the only haploid cells in animals
Cell Cycle
They are produces by meiosis and undergo no
further cell division before fertilization
Gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote that divides

by mitosis to develop into a multicellular organism
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1: Plants and some algae exhibit an alternation

Cell Cycle of generations
This life cycle includes both a diploid and
haploid multicellular stage
The diploid organism, called the sporophyte,

makes haploid spores by meiosis
MODULE 1: Each spore grows by mitosis into a haploid

Cell Cycle organism called a gametophyte
A gametophyte makes haploid gametes by

mitosis
Fertilization of gametes results in a diploid

sporophyte
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1: In most fungi and some protists, the only diploid

Cell Cycle stage is the single-celled zygote; there is no
multicellular diploid stage
The zygote produces haploid cells by meiosis
Each haploid cell grows by mitosis into a haploid

multicellular organism
The haploid adult produces gametes by mitosis

MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1: Depending on the type of life cycle, either haploid

Cell Cycle or diploid cells can divide by mitosis
However, only diploid cells can undergo meiosis
In all three life cycles, the halving and doubling of

chromosomes contributes to genetic variation in
offspring
Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets

MODULE 1: from diploid to haploid
Cell Cycle
Like mitosis, meiosis is preceded by the replication of
chromosomes
Meiosis takes place in two sets of cell divisions,
called meiosis I and meiosis II
The two cell divisions result in four daughter cells,
rather than the two daughter cells in mitosis
Each daughter cell has only half as many
chromosomes as the parent cell
MODULE 1: The Stages of Meiosis

Cell Cycle
After chromosomes duplicate, two divisions follow:
Meiosis I (reductional division): homologs pair
up and separate, resulting in two haploid
daughter cells with replicated chromosomes
Meiosis II (equational division) sister
chromatids separate
The result is four haploid daughter cells with

unreplicated chromosomes
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle Meiosis I is preceded by interphase, when the
chromosomes are duplicated to form sister chromatids
The sister chromatids are genetically identical and

joined at the centromere
The single centrosome replicates, forming two

centrosomes
MODULE 1: Division in meiosis I occurs in four phases

Cell Cycle
–Prophase I
–Metaphase I
–Anaphase I
–Telophase I and cytokinesis
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1: Prophase I
Cell Cycle Prophase I typically occupies more
than 90% of the time required for
meiosis
Chromosomes begin to condense
In synapsis, homologous
chromosomes loosely pair up,
aligned gene by gene
MODULE 1: In crossing over, nonsister chromatids exchange

Cell Cycle DNA segments
Each pair of chromosomes forms a tetrad, a group

of four chromatids
Each tetrad usually has one or more chiasmata, X-

shaped regions where crossing over occurred
Metaphase I
MODULE 1: In metaphase I, tetrads line up at
Cell Cycle the metaphase plate, with one
chromosome facing each pole
Microtubules from one pole are

attached to the kinetochore of one
chromosome of each tetrad
Microtubules from the other pole

are attached to the kinetochore of
the other chromosome
MODULE 1: Anaphase I
In anaphase I, pairs of homologous
Cell Cycle chromosomes separate
One chromosome moves toward

each pole, guided by the spindle
apparatus
Sister chromatids remain attached

at the centromere and move as one
unit toward the pole
MODULE 1: Telophase I and Cytokinesis

In the beginning of telophase I,
Cell Cycle each half of the cell has a haploid set
of chromosomes; each chromosome
still consists of two sister
chromatids
Cytokinesis usually occurs

simultaneously, forming two haploid
daughter cells
MODULE 1: In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms; in

Cell Cycle plant cells, a cell plate forms
No chromosome replication occurs between

the end of meiosis I and the beginning of
meiosis II because the chromosomes are
already replicated
MODULE 1:
Division in meiosis II also occurs in four phases
Cell Cycle Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II and cytokinesis
Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis

MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1:
Prophase II
Cell Cycle
In prophase II, a spindle
apparatus forms
In late prophase II, chromosomes

(each still composed of two
chromatids) move toward the
metaphase plate
Metaphase II
MODULE 1: In metaphase II, the sister
chromatids are arranged at the
Cell Cycle metaphase plate
Because of crossing over in meiosis

I, the two sister chromatids of each
chromosome are no longer
genetically identical
The kinetochores of sister

chromatids attach to microtubules
extending from opposite poles
MODULE 1: Anaphase II
Cell Cycle In anaphase II, the sister
chromatids separate
The sister chromatids of each

chromosome now move as two
newly individual chromosomes
toward opposite poles
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle Telophase II and Cytokinesis
In telophase II, the chromosomes
arrive at opposite poles
Nuclei form, and thechromosomes

begin decondensing
MODULE 1: Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm

Cell Cycle At the end of meiosis, there are four daughter
cells, each with a haploid set of unreplicated
chromosomes
Each daughter cell is genetically distinct from the

others and from the parent cell
A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle Mitosis conserves the number of chromosome
sets, producing cells that are genetically
identical to the parent cell
Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes

sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid),
producing cells that differ genetically from each
other and from the parent cell
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three

MODULE 1: occur in meiosis l
Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I:
Cell Cycle Homologous chromosomes physically connect
and exchange genetic information
At the metaphase plate, there are paired

homologous chromosomes (tetrads), instead of
individual replicated chromosomes
At anaphase I, it is homologous chromosomes,

instead of sister chromatids, that separate
MODULE 1: Sister chromatid cohesion allows sister chromatids of a

single chromosome to stay together through meiosis I
Cell Cycle
Protein complexes called cohesins are responsible for
this cohesion
In mitosis, cohesins are cleaved at the end of metaphase
In meiosis, cohesins are cleaved along the chromosome

arms in anaphase I (separation of homologs) and at the
centromeres in anaphase II (separation of sister
chromatids)
MODULE 1: Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles

contributes to evolution
Cell Cycle Mutations (changes in an organism’s DNA)
are the original source of genetic diversity
Mutations create different versions of genes

called alleles
Reshuffling of alleles during sexual

reproduction produces genetic variation
MODULE 1: Origins of Genetic Variation Among Offspring

Cell Cycle The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis
and fertilization is responsible for most of the
variation that arises in each generation
Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation

Independent assortment of chromosomes
Crossing over
Random fertilization
MODULE 1: Independent Assortment of Chromosomes

Cell Cycle Homologous pairs of chromosomes orient
randomly at metaphase I of meiosis
In independent assortment, each pair of

chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologs
into daughter cells independently of the other pairs
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle The number of combinations possible when
chromosomes assort independently into gametes is
2n, where n is the haploid number
For humans (n = 23), there are more than 8 million

(223) possible combinations of chromosomes
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
Crossing Over
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle Crossing over produces recombinant
chromosomes, which combine DNA inherited
from each parent
Crossing over begins very early in prophase

I, as homologous chromosomes pair up
gene by gene
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
In crossing over, homologous portions of two
nonsister chromatids trade places
Crossing over contributes to genetic variation by

combining DNA from two parents into a single
chromosome
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1: Random Fertilization

Cell Cycle Random fertilization adds to genetic variation
because any sperm can fuse with any ovum (unfertilized
egg)
The fusion of two gametes (each with 8.4 million

possible chromosome combinations from
independent assortment) produces a zygote with any
of about 70 trillion diploid combinations
Crossing over adds even more variation
Each zygote has a unique genetic identity
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1:
The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation
Cell Cycle
Within Populations
Natural selection results in the accumulation of
genetic variations favored by the environment
Sexual reproduction contributes to the genetic

variation in a population, which originates from
mutations
MODULE 1: The Evolutionary Significance of Genetic Variation

Within Populations
Cell Cycle
Natural selection results in the accumulation of
genetic variations favored by the environment
Sexual reproduction contributes to the genetic

variation in a population, which originates from
mutations
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle
MAO RATO!
Hangak kaayo!
MODULE 1:
Cell Cycle

Module 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF SOUTHERN PHILIPPINES

Alubijid | Balubal I Cagayan de Oro | Claveria | Jasaan | Oroquieta | Panaon I Villanueva

MODULE 1: Cell Cycle

MODULE 1: Key roles in Cell Division:

- The continuity of life is based on the reproduction

- In unicellular organisms, division of one cell

MODULE 1: Multicellular organisms depend on cell division for:

Development Growth Repair

Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material:

Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material

2. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

MODULE 1: Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division

2. Each duplicated chromosome has two sister

MODULE 1: Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division

Eukaryotic cell division consists of:

2. Cytokinesis, the division of the

MODULE 1: 1. G1 phase (“first gap”)

- A time when the cell increases its

MODULE 1: 2. S phase (“synthesis”)

At the end of this phase, after the DNA

MODULE 1: 3. G2 phase (“second gap”)

- it is the time for metabolic activity

It is conventionally divided into five phases:

- It overlaps the latter stages of mitosis.

Mitotic Phase (the M phase)

- The nucleus also contains one or more

- The chromosomes convene on the

- In animals, cytokinesis involves a

MODULE 1: Binary Fission in Bacteria

- In binary fission, the chromosome

MODULE 1: The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular

MODULE 1: The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular

The Cell Cycle Control System

The cell cycle control system is regulated by both

The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell

The Cell Cycle Control System

If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, it

The Cell Cycle Clock: Cyclins and Cyclin-Dependent

Cdks activity fluctuates during the cell cycle because it is

MPF (maturation-promoting factor) is a cyclin-Cdk complex that

Stop and Go Signs:

Some external signals are growth factors, proteins

For example, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)

MODULE 1: A clear example of external signals is density-

Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence,

Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent

Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells

Cancer cells may not need growth factors to

A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell by a process

Overview: Variations on a Theme

MODULE 1: Offspring acquire genes from parents

In a literal sense, children do not inherit

It is genes that are actually inherited.

MODULE 1: Inheritance of Genes

MODULE 1: Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

In sexual reproduction, two parents give rise to

MODULE 1: Fertilization and meiosis alternate in

A life cycle is the generation-to-

Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells

A karyotype is an ordered display of the pairs of