Data Communication Basics

Data communications are the exchange of data

between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a
combination of hardware (physical equipment)
and software (programs).
• Introduction to Computer Networks
 At its most elementary level, a computer network
consists of two computers connected to each
other by a cable that allows them to share data.
 connecting together of computers and other
devices is called a network, and the concept of
connected computers sharing resources is called
networking.
 Two computers are said to be interconnected if
they are able to exchange information
• Components of a compute networks
 Five components of data communication
1. Message: is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular
forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and
video.
2. Sender: is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission
media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiberoptic cable, and
radio waves.
5. Protocol: is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
 Definitions
• The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data.
• Signal: the electrical wave that is used to represent
the data. Can be analog or digital signal
• Data communications (Transmission) are the
exchange of data between two devices via some form
of transmission medium such as a wire cable using
appropriate signal.
• Network is a system in which a number of
independent computers are linked together to share
data and peripherals, such as hard disks and printers
(more in the next chapters)
 Data Representation Techniques
• The type of data to be transmitted can be in
the form of text, audio, and video in the form
of electrical signal, radio, laser, or other
radiated energy source.
• Data can be analog or digital
• The term analog data refers to information
that is continuous; digital data refers to
information that has discrete states.
• Example analog clock (with second, minute
and hour hands) and digital clock
 Data Communication and Transmission
Medias
Transmission medium
• The transmission medium is the physical path between
transmitter and receiver in a data transmission system.
Transmission media can be classified as guided or
unguided. In both cases, communication is in the form of
electromagnetic waves. With guided media, the waves are
guided along a solid medium, such as copper twisted pair,
copper coaxial cable, and optical fiber.
• The atmosphere and outer space are examples of unguided
media that provide a means of transmitting
electromagnetic signals but do not guide them; this form of
transmission is usually referred to as wireless transmission.
 GUIDED TRANSMSSION MEDIA
• For guided transmission media, the transmission capacity, in
terms of either data rate or bandwidth, depends critically on
the distance and on whether the medium is point-to-point or
multipoint, such as in a local area network (LAN).
• Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one
device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable.
• A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and
contained by the physical limits of the medium.
• Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors
that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current.
• Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in
the form of light.
 Twisted-Pair Cable
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors
(normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together, as shown in the figure
below
 Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cable
• The most common twisted-pair cable used in
communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair
(UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair
cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
• STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that
encases each pair of insulated conductors.
• Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by
preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is
bulkier and more expensive.
• Our discussion focuses primarily on UTP because STP is
seldom used outside of IBM.
 Connectors

• The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ

stands for registered jack). The RJ45 is a keyed
connector, meaning the connector can be
inserted in only one way.
 Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite
differently.
• Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in
turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of
the two.
• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the
second conductor, which completes the circuit.
• This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole
cable is protected by a plastic cover
 Connector
• The BNC connector is used to connect
the end of the cable to a device, such
as a TV set.
• The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet
networks to branch out to a connection
to a computer or other device.
• The BNC terminator is used at the end of
the cable to prevent the reflection of
the signal
• BNC barrel connector is used to join two
lengths of thinnet cable to make one
longer length.
 Fiber-Optic Cable
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the
form of light.
• Fiber-optic cabling consists of a signal-carrying glass core of 5 to 100
microns in diameter (a sheet of paper is about 25 microns thick and a
human hair about 75 microns thick), surrounded by a layer of pure silica
called cladding, which prevents light from escaping.
• Surrounding the cladding are protective layers of acrylic plastic coating,
Kevlar fibers for additional strength, and a PVC (polyvinyl chloride) jacket
(usually colored a distinctive orange).
• Network components use LED or laser diodes to convert electrical signals
into light pulses for transmission on fiber-optic cables. An optical detector
is used to convert the light pulses back into electrical signals.
Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors
• RJ45.
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
• Unguided media transport electromagnetic
waves without using a physical conductor.
• This type of communication is often referred to
as wireless communication.
• Signals are normally broadcast through free
space and thus are available to anyone who has
a device capable of receiving them.
• Unguided signals can travel from the source to
destination in several ways: ground propagation,
sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation.
• We can divide wireless transmission into three
broad groups: radio waves, microwaves, and
infrared waves.
 The OSI and the TCP/IP Communication
Models
• A network is a combination of hardware and software
that sends data from one location to another.
• The hardware consists of the physical equipment that
carries signals from one point of the network to
another.
• The software consists of instruction sets that make
possible the services that we expect from a network
• For example, the task of sending an e-mail from one
point in the world to another can be broken into several
tasks, each performed by a separate software package.
• Each software package uses the services of another
software package. At the lowest layer, a signal, or a set
of signals, is sent from the source computer to the
destination computer.
• A communication architecture is a strategy for
connecting host computers and other communicating
equipment.
• It defines necessary elements for data communication
between devices.
• A communication architecture, therefore, defines a
standard for the communicating hosts
• Layer architecture simplifies the network design.
• It is easy to debug network applications in a layered
architecture network.
• The network management is easier due to the layered
architecture.
• Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.
• The protocol defines the format of the data being
exchanged, and the control and timing for the handshake
between layers.
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

The Seven Layers

Every possible functionality in every layer
 Interfaces Between Layers
• The passing of the data and network information
down through the layers of the sending device and
back up through the layers of the receiving device is
made possible by an interface between each pair of
adjacent layers.
• Each interface defines the information and services
a layer must provide for the layer above it.
• Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide
modularity to a network. As long as a layer provides
the expected services to the layer above it, the
specific implementation of its functions can be
modified or replaced without requiring changes to
the surrounding layers.
 Organization of the Layers
• The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three
subgroups. Layers 1, 2, and 3 - physical, data link, and
network - are the network support layers; they deal with
the physical aspects of moving data from one device to
another (such as electrical specifications, physical
connections, physical addressing, and transport timing and
reliability).
• Layers 5, 6, and 7- session, presentation, and application -
can be thought of as the user support layers; they allow
interoperability among unrelated software systems.
• Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and
ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a
form that the upper layers can use.
• The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in
software; lower layers are a combination of hardware and
software, except for the physical layer, which is mostly
hardware.
 Physical Layer
• The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a
bit stream over a physical medium.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the
interface and transmission medium.
• It also defines the procedures and functions that physical
devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.

The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next.
 The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The
physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface
between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.
2. Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a
stream of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation.
To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals -
electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of
encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals) (Refer
chapter one).
3. Data rate. The transmission rate - the number of bits sent
each second - is also defined by the physical layer. In other
words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which
is how long it lasts.
4. Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only
must use the same bit rate but also must be synchronized at
the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver
clocks must be synchronized.
5. Line configuration. The physical layer is
concerned with the connection of devices to
the media (point – to – point or multipoint).
6. Physical topology. The physical topology
defines how devices are connected to make a
network.
6. Transmission mode. The physical layer also
defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
 Data Link Layer
• The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw
transmission facility, to a reliable link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper
layer (network layer). The following figure shows the
relationship of the data link layer to the network and physical
layers.

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
1. Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.
2. Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on
the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the
sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system
outside the sender‘s network, the receiver address is the address of the
device that connects the network to the next one.
3. Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is
less than the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link
layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the
receiver.
4. Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also
uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally
achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
5. Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link,
data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.
 Network Layer (3rd OSI Layer)
• Concerned with getting packets from source to destination.
• The network layer must know the topology of the subnet and
choose appropriate paths through it.
• When source and destination are in different networks, the network
layer must deal with these differences.
• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks. Whereas
the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two
systems on the same network, the network layer ensures that each
packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.
• If two systems are connected to the same local network, there is
usually no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems
are attached to different networks with connecting devices
between the networks, there is often a need for the network layer
to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
 responsibilities of the network layer

• Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by

the data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. If
a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and
destination systems. The network layer adds a header to the
packet coming from the upper layer that, among other
things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and
receiver. We discuss logical addresses later in chapter Seven.
• Routing. When independent networks or links are connected
to create internetworks (network of networks) or a large
network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches)
route or switch the packets to their final destination. One of
the functions of the network layer is to provide this
mechanism.
 Transport layer (4th OSI layer)
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process
delivery of the entire message.
• A process is an application program running on a host.
• Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination
delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any
relationship between those packets.
• The network layer treats each packet independently, as
though each piece belonged to a separate message,
whether or not it does.
• The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the
whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing
both error control and flow control at the source-to-
destination level.
Major functions of the transport layer
• The Transport layer encompasses these
functions:
– Enables multiple applications to communicate
over the network at the same time on a single
device
– Ensures that, if required, all the data is received
reliably and in order by the correct application
– Employs error handling mechanisms
 Process-to-Process Delivery
• As a revision, the data link layer is responsible for delivery of frames
between two neighboring nodes over a link. This is called node-to-node
delivery.
• The network layer is responsible for delivery of datagrams between two
hosts. This is called host-to-host delivery.
• Communication on the Internet is not defined as the exchange of data
between two nodes or between two hosts. Real communication takes
place between two processes (application programs). We need process-
to-process delivery.
• However, at any moment, several processes may be running on the
source host and several on the destination host. To complete the
delivery, we need a mechanism to deliver data from one of these
processes running on the source host to the corresponding process
running on the destination host.
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery-the
delivery of a packet, part of a message, from one process to another.
Two processes communicate in a client/server relationship.
 Transport layer addressing

• Whenever we need to deliver something to one specific destination among

many, we need an address.
• At the data link layer, we need a MAC address to choose one node among
several nodes if the connection is not point-to-point. A frame in the data
link layer needs a destination MAC address for delivery and a source
address for the next node's reply.
• At the network layer, we need an IP address to choose one host among
millions. A datagram in the network layer needs a destination IP address
for delivery and a source IP address for the destination's reply.
• At the transport layer, we need a transport layer address, called a port
number, to choose among multiple processes running on the destination
host. The destination port number is needed for delivery; the source port
number is needed for the reply. In the Internet model, the port numbers
are 16-bit integers between 0 and 65,535.
• The client program defines itself with a port number, chosen randomly by
the transport layer software running on the client host. This is the
ephemeral (temporal) port number.
 Connection Control:
Connectionless Versus Connection-Oriented Service

• A transport layer protocol can either be connectionless or

connection-oriented.
• Connectionless Service
– In a connectionless service, the packets are sent from one party
to another with no need for connection establishment or
connection release. The packets are not numbered; they
may be delayed or lost or may arrive out of sequence .
There is no acknowledgment either. UDP is connectionless.
• Connection-Oriented Service
– In a connection-oriented service, a connection is first
established between the sender and the receiver. Data are
transferred. At the end, the connection is released. TCP and
SCTP are connection-oriented protocols.
 Reliable Versus Unreliable
• The transport layer service can be reliable or unreliable. If the
application layer program needs reliability, we use a reliable
transport layer protocol by implementing flow and error
control at the transport layer. This means a slower and more
complex service.
• On the other hand, if the application program does not need
reliability because it uses its own flow and error control
mechanism or it needs fast service or the nature of the service
does not demand flow and error control (real-time
applications), then an unreliable protocol can be used.
• In the Internet, there are two common different transport layer
protocols, as we have already mentioned. UDP is
connectionless and unreliable; TCP and SCTP are connection-
oriented and reliable protocols. These three can respond to the
demands of the application layer programs.
 Layer 5th : Session Layer
• The lowest four layers of the OSI model (Physical, Data link,
Network, and Transport) provide the means for the reliable
exchange of data and provide a fast data service.
• For example, a remote terminal access application might
require a half-duplex dialogue.
• A transaction-processing application might require
checkpoints in the data-transfer stream to permit backup and
recovery.
• A message processing application might require the ability to
interrupt a dialogue in order to prepare a new portion of a
message and later to resume the dialogue where it was left
off.

• The session layer provides the mechanism for controlling the

dialogue between applications in end systems. In many cases,
there will be little or no need for session-layer services, but
for some applications, such services are used.
 layer 6th presentation layer
• The presentation layer is concerned with the
syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.
 7th layer: Application Layer
• The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to
access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services
such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared
database management, and other types of distributed information
services.
• Application layer is where users actually communicate to the
computer.
• Typical application layer protocols
 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 E-mail (SMTP,POP,IMAP)
 Domain Name System (DNS)
Domain Name System (DNS)
• Thousands of servers, installed in many different locations, provide the
services we use over the Internet.
• Each of these servers is assigned a unique IP address
 Internet Protocol (IP) and IP Addressing

• The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol (rule) used for

communicating data across a packet-switched internetwork
using the Internet Protocol Suite, also referred to as TCP/IP.
• IP is the primary protocol in the Internet Layer of the
Internet Protocol Suite and has the task of delivering
distinguished protocol datagrams (packets) from the source
host to the destination host solely based on their
addresses.
• The first major version of addressing structure, now
referred to as Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is still the
dominant protocol of the Internet, although the successor,
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6), is being deployed
actively worldwide (128 bits).
 IP Addressing
• Communication at the network layer is host-to-host
(computer-to-computer); a computer somewhere in
the world needs to communicate with another
computer somewhere else in the world.
• Usually, computers communicate through the Internet.
• The packet transmitted by the sending computer may
pass through several LANs or WANs before reaching
the destination computer.
• For this level of communication, we need a global
addressing scheme; we use the term IP address to
mean a logical address in the network layer of the
TCP/IP protocol suite.
 IPv4 Addresses
• An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that
uniquely and universally defines the
connection of a device (for example, a
computer or a router) to the Internet.
• IPv4 addresses are unique and universal.
• They are unique in the sense that each
address defines one, and only one, connection
to the Internet.
• Two devices on the Internet can never have
the same address at the same time.
 Address Space

• A protocol such as IPv4 that defines addresses has an

address space. An address space is the total number of
addresses used by the protocol.
• If a protocol uses N bits to define an address, the
address space is 2N because each bit can have two
different values (0 or 1) and N bits can have 2N values.
• IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the
address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296 (more than 4
billion). This means that, theoretically, if there were no
restrictions, more than 4 billion devices could be
connected to the Internet.
• We will see shortly that the actual number is much less
because of the restrictions imposed on the addresses
 Notations

• There are two prevalent notations to show an 1Pv4

address: binary notation and dotted-decimal notation.
• Binary Notation
– In binary notation, the IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits. Each
octet is often referred to as a byte. So it is common to hear an
IPv4 address referred to as a 32-bit address or a 4-byte address.
The following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary
notation:
01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010
• Dotted-Decimal Notation
– To make the IPv4 address more compact and easier to read,
Internet addresses are usually written in decimal form with a
decimal point (dot) separating the bytes. The following is the
dotted-decimal notation of the above address:
117.149.29.2
Example: Dotted-decimal notation and
binary notation for an IPv4 address
 Class full Addressing
• IPv4 addressing, at its inception, used the
concept of classes. This architecture is called
classfull addressing.
• In classful addressing, the address space is
divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E. Each
class occupies some part of the address space.
Finding the classes in binary and dotted-
decimal notation
• Previously, when an organization requested a block of
addresses, it was granted one in class A, B, or C.
• Class A addresses were designed for large organizations with
a large number of attached hosts or routers.
• Class B addresses were designed for midsize organizations
with tens of thousands of attached hosts or routers.
• Class C addresses were designed for small organizations with
a small number of attached hosts or routers.
• A block in class A address is too large for almost any
organization. This means most of the addresses in class A
were wasted and were not used.
• A block in class B is also very large, probably too large for
many of the organizations that received a class B block.
• A block in class C is probably too small for many
organizations.
 Subnetting
• During the era of classful addressing, subnetting was
introduced.
• If an organization was granted a large block in class A
or B, it could divide the addresses into several
contiguous groups and assign each group to smaller
networks (called subnets) or, in rare cases, share part
of the addresses with neighbors.
• Subnetting increases the number of 1s in the mask.

Good luck !!!!!

 Different network/internet protocols
What is a Protocol
• In networking, protocol is a set of standards and
rules for communication between network hosts.
Protocols often provide services, such as e-mail or
file transfer. Most protocols perform a specific
function. However, most protocols are not
capable of performing every aspect of networking
by itself. Most protocols rely on other protocols
for a complete networking solution.
• A group of protocols that are to be used together is
called a protocol suite. The most popular protocol suite is
the TCP/IP protocol suite. TCP/IP is a set of protocols that
is used on the Internet and on most networks.
TCP/IP Model
• TCP/IP Model or the Internet protocol suite is a set of
communications protocols which is used on the Internet
and similar networks. It is referred to as TCP/IP because
of its most important protocols: Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). Those two
protocols were the first networking protocols defined in
this standard. The TCP/IP protocol suite has four
abstraction layers (in contrast to OSI model which has 7),
each with its own protocols. From highest to lowest the
layers are:
• Application layer – handles application-based
interaction on a process-to-process level between
communicating Internet hosts
• Transport layer – handles host-to-host communication
• Internet layer – connects different networks
• Link layer – handles communication on a local network
DHCP
• Another well known protocol is DHCP or Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol. DHCP is a method for
automatically assigning addresses and other
configuration parameters to network hosts. Using a
DHCP server, hosts receive configuration information at
startup, reducing the amount of manual configuration
required on each host. This protocol is crucial in
environments with many computers.
• FTP is a client-server protocol that relies on two
communications channels between client and server: a
command channel for controlling the conversation and a
data channel for transmitting file content
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the set of rules for
transferring files (text, graphic images, sound, video, and
other multimedia files) on the World Wide Web. As soon as
a Web user opens their Web browser, the user is indirectly
making use of HTTP. HTTP is an application protocol that
runs on top of the TCP/IP suite of protocols (the foundation
protocols for the Internet).
 domain name system (DNS)
• The domain name system (DNS) is the way
that Internet domain names are located and
translated into Internet Protocol addresses. A
domain name is a meaningful and easy-to-
remember "handle" for an Internet address.
• Because maintaining a central list of domain
name/IP address correspondences would be
impractical, the lists of domain names and IP
addresses are distributed throughout the
Internet
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a TCP/IP
protocol used in sending and receiving e-mail.
However, since it is limited in its ability to queue
messages at the receiving end, it is usually used
with one of two other protocols, POP3 or IMAP,
that let the user save messages in a server
mailbox and download them periodically from
the server.
 In other words, users typically use a program
that uses SMTP for sending e-mail and either
POP3 or IMAP for receiving e-mail.