NERVOUS SYSTEM

Human Anatomy and Physiology

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Introduction
The nervous system is the master

controlling and communicating system of the body. It is necessary for the maintenance of Homeostasis.

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Three basic functions of the nervous system

SENSORY: the nervous system senses certain changes (stimuli) both within and outside the body. INTEGRATIVE: the nervous system analyzes the sensory input, stores some aspects, and makes decisions regarding appropriate behaviors. MOTOR: the nervous system may respond to stimuli by stimulating muscular contractions or glandular secretions.
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Organization of the nervous system

Structural Classification Central Nervous System: consists of the brain and spinal cord, which occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as integrating and command centers of the nervous system.
Peripheral

Nervous System: consists of the cranial nerves that arise from the brain and spinal nerves that emerge from the spinal cord.
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Structural Classification

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Functional Classification

Innervates voluntarily controlled functions (Somatic Division) Sensory/Afferent Division: consists of nerve fibers that convey impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors located in various parts of the body. Motor/Efferent Division: carries impulses from the CNS to muscles and glands. Innervates involuntarily controlled functions (Autonomic Nervous System): regulates events that are automatic or involuntary. It consists of sensory neurons that convey information from receptors primarily in the viscera to the CNS and motor neurons from the CNS that conduct impulses to smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands. Two branches of the motor portion of the Autonomic Nervous System which typically bring about opposite effects, what one stimulates, the other inhibits. Sympathetic Nervous Division Parasympathetic Nervous Division

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The Nervous Tissue

Neurons: basic structural and functional

unit of the nervous system. Neuroglia: also known as supporting structures or cells. They fill about half of the CNS .

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NEURONS
Parts: Dendrites: transmit nerve impulse towards the cell body. Are not usually myelinated. Axons: propagate nerve impulse toward another neuron, muscle fiber, or glands. Cell body: also known as the soma or Perikaryon. Contains nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm that includes typical organelles such as liposomes, mitochondria, and a golgi complex.

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Classification of Neurons
Structural: based on the number of processes extending from the cell body. Multipolar: with several dendrites and one axon. Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord. Bipolar: have one main dendrite and one axon. Found in the retina of the eyes, inner ear, and olfactory area of the brain. Unipolar: have just one process extending from the cell body and are always sensory neurons. Functional Sensory/Afferent neuron: transmit sensory nerve impulses from the receptors in the skin, sense organs, muscles, joints, and viscera into the CNS. Motor/ Efferent Neuron: convey motor nerve impulses from the CNS to effectors. Interneuron: also known as association neurons. 90% of neurons are association neurons. They are neurons that relay information within the CNS.

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Structural Classification of Neurons

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Neuroglia:They are smaller than neurons and 5 to 50 more times more numerous.
1. Astrocytes: star-shaped cells that account for nearly half of the neuronal tissue. Functions: Participate in the metabolism of neurotransmitters. Maintain the proper balance of potassium ions for generation of nerve impulses Participate in brain development Help form the blood-brain barrier which regulate entry of substances into the brain, and; Provide a link between neurons and blood vessels.

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Neuroglia
2. Microglia: small, phagocytic neuroglia derived from monocytes. Function: Protect the CNS from diseases by engulfing invading microorganisms and clearing away debris from dead cells.
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Neuroglia
Ependymal cells: lines the cavities of

the brain; they are cuboidal to columnar ciliated epithelial cells. They also line the central canal, a narrow passage way in the spinal cord. They form the CSF and assist in its circulation. The CSF provides cushion to the CNS.

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Neuroglia
Oligodendrocytes: are the most common

glial cells in the CNS. They have few processes and are smaller than astrocytes. They form a supporting network by twinning around neurons and produce a lipid and protein wrapping called a myelin sheath.

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MYELIN SHEATH

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Glia of the PNS

Neurolemmocytes: also known as Schwann cells. They produce myelin sheaths around the PNS neurons. Satellite cells: support neurons in ganglia. They are protective, cushioning cells.

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IMPORTANT TERMS TO REMEMBER

NERVE FIBERS: refers to dendrites and axons NERVE: a bundle of many nerve fibers that course along the

same path in the PNS. Include bundles of both sensory and motor fibers and are surrounded by connective tissue coats. TRACT: is a bundle of nerve fibers, without connective tissue elements in the CNS. NUCLEUS: mass of cell bodies and dendrites of neurons inside the CNS. GANGLION: clusters of cell bodies in the PNS. GRAY MATTER: contains either neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and axon terminals or bundles of unmyelinated axons and neuroglia. It looks grayish. In the spinal cord the gray matter is inner to the white matter. In the brain the gray matter is outer to the white matter. WHITE MATTER: aggregations of myelinated processes from many neurons.
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THE BRAIN
It is about two good

fistfuls of pinkish, gray tissue, wrinkled like a walnut, and with the texture cold oatmeal. It weighs a little over three pounds.

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The major areas of the brain

Cerebellum: located immediately below the posterior part of the

cerebral hemispheres and is connected with the cerebrum, brain stem, and the spinal cord by means of the pons. It means little brain. Brain stem: connects the cerebrum and diencephalon with the spinal cord. The superior portion of the brain stem is the midbrain. Inferior to the midbrain is the pons, followed by the medulla oblongata. The pons connectc the midbrain with the medulla, whereas the medulla connects the brain with the spinal cord through a large opening in the base of the skull (Foramen magnum). Diencephalon: is the area between the cerebral hemispheres and the brain stem. It includes the thalamus and hypothalamus. Cerebrum: is the largest part of te brain. It is divided into right and left cerebral hemispheres by a deep groove called the longitudinal fissure.

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The Cerebellum

Functions: Help coordinate voluntary muscles to ensure smooth, orderly function. Disease of the cerebellum causes muscular jerkiness and tremors. Help maintain balance in standing, walking ans sitting as well as during more strenuous activities. Messages from the internal ear and from sensory receptors in tendons and muscles aid in the cerebellum. Help maintain muscle tone so that all muscle fibers are slightly tensed and ready to produce changes in position as quickly as necessary.

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Cerebellum

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The Brain Stem

Functions: The Midbrain: act as centers for certain reflexes involving the eye and the ear. It is where cranial nerves III and IV originate. The Pons: carries impulses to and from the centers located above and below it. Certain involuntary reflex actions, such as some of those regulating respiration, are integrated in the pons. Cranial nerves V through VIII originate from the pons. Medulla Oblongata: It contains vital centers or nuclei: Respiratory center: controls the muscles of respiration to chemical and other stimuli. Cardiac Center: helps regulate the rate and force of heartbeat. Vasomotor center: regulates the contraction of smooth muscle in the blood vessel walls and thus controls blood flow and blood pressure.

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Brain Stem

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The Diencephalon
Functions:

Thalamus: to sort out the impulses and direct them to particular areas of the cerebral cortex. Hypothalamus: It helps maintain homeostasis by controlling body temperature, water balance, sleep, appetite, and some emotions, such as fear and pleasure.

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Diencephalon

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The Cerebral cortex

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The Cerebrum
Frontal Lobe - Front part of the brain; involved in planning,

organizing, problem solving, selective attention, personality and a variety of "higher cognitive functions" including behavior and emotions. The anterior (front) portion of the frontal lobe is called the prefrontal cortex. It is very important for the "higher cognitive functions" and the determination of the personality. The posterior (back) of the frontal lobe consists of the premotor and motor areas. Nerve cells that produce movement are located in the motor areas. The premotor areas serve to modify movements. The frontal lobe is divided from the parietal lobe by the central culcus.

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Occipital Lobe
Region in the back of the brain which

processes visual information. Not only is the occipital lobe mainly responsible for visual reception, it also contains association areas that help in the visual recognition of shapes and colors. Damage to this lobe can cause visual deficits.
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Parietal Lobe
One of the two parietal lobes of the brain located behind the

frontal lobe at the top of the brain. Parietal Lobe, Right - Damage to this area can cause visuospatial deficits (e.g., the patient may have difficulty finding their way around new, or even familiar, places). Parietal Lobe, Left - Damage to this area may disrupt a patient's ability to understand spoken and/or written language. The parietal lobes contain the primary sensory cortex which controls sensation (touch, pressure). Behind the primary sensory cortex is a large association area that controls fine sensation (judgment of texture, weight, size, shape).

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Temporal Lobe
There are two temporal lobes, one on each

side of the brain located at about the level of the ears. These lobes allow a person to tell one smell from another and one sound from another. They also help in sorting new information and are believed to be responsible for short-term memory. Right Lobe - Mainly involved in visual memory (i.e., memory for pictures and faces). Left Lobe - Mainly involved in verbal memory (i.e., memory for words and names).
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