Erect Stone Memorial

SENDAFA BAKE TVET COLEGE
Occupation: Structural Construction Work

Level:III
Unit of competency:Erecting stone memorials and monument
Memorial or monument?
People regularly use the words ‘memorial’, ‘monument’ and

‘commemoration’ as synonyms. They are all expressions of
memory, which can belong to an individual or to a group in the
form of a collective memory. Although there is no clean
boundary between them, it is often useful to consider them as
different, though interrelated terms.
• Memorial is a broad term that can encompass
any effort at commemorating an event or
person, particularly when it is associated with
loss. It can be a statue, but might just as easily
be a community hall, a town’s swimming pool,
a book, a scroll, a road or a bridge.
• Monument is usually used in more narrow terms to
describe a built structure which commemorates –
though not always celebrates – an event or person
• The placement of memorials and monuments in
public spaces recognises that they offer an officially
sanctioned view of history. This provides an insight
into the values and ideals of the society that
constructed them, and which subsequently maintains
them or allows them to fall into disrepair.
• The memorials and monuments are, however, far
from being static repositories of a nation’s history.
Materials and Monuments
• Stone, brick, concrete, metal, and wood are the most
common materials used for grave markers and for
fences and gravesite enclosures in historic cemeteries.
1. Masonry
• There is a wide variety of masonry materials used in
historic cemeteries; some are naturally occurring and
others man-made. Although there are notable
exceptions, most masonry materials are durable, have
high compressive strength, and are resistant to
weathering.
• As grave markers, they typically represent the
work of masons and stone carvers. Stone is a
naturally occurring material with a wide range of
properties and is available in a variety of colours.
• Geologists classify stone according to the way in
which it was formed with the three categories
being igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rock.
• Stone found in cemeteries is predominantly
quarried, though the use of field stones is not
uncommon.
• The mineralogy and chemical composition of stones
vary. Some are composed primarily of silicate
minerals; granites, sandstones, slate, and schist are
examples.
• Other stones contain calcium carbonate with marble
and limestone in this group.
• Mineralogy, chemical composition, and physical
structure of the stone influence weathering and the
selection of materials and procedures for its cleaning
and protection.
There are three basic types of materials that are used
to create monuments.
• Granite is the most commonly used material and is
available in numerous colors such as, but not
limited to: traditional grays, blacks, a variety of
reds, pinks, browns, greens, and near whites.
• Marble has been used for centuries and is well
known for its traditional beauty. White is the most
popular color used in monuments and typically has
various degrees of gray "veining" adding to its
attractiveness.
• Sandstone, a sedimentary rock, is formed when grains
of sand are compacted and cemented together over
thousands or millions of years.
• The sand grains often are composed of the minerals
quartz or feldspar that were worn off other rocks and
ground down into pebbles.
• limestone, sedimentary rock composed mainly of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), usually in the form of
calcite or aragonite. It may contain considerable
amounts of magnesium carbonate (dolomite) as well;
minor constituents also commonly present include
clay, iron carbonate, feldspar, pyrite, and quartz.
• Man-made masonry materials are manufactured from
naturally occurring raw materials.
For example, the raw materials used to make brick
include clay, sand, and shale.
During firing, clay minerals and sand melt and come
together forming silicates, aluminates, and metallic
oxides. The resulting brick material has a hard-fired outer
surface with a softer interior.
Concrete is a man-made material composed of cement,
sand, gravel, and water. Most concrete produced after
1870 contains Portland cement, another manufactured
product. In its plastic or wet state, concrete can be cast or
poured.
• It hardens by hydration, a chemical-curing process.
The resulting product has excellent compressive
strength, but much lower tensile strength. Reinforcing
concrete with steel helps compensate for this
limitation.
• All masonry materials are porous with an interior
network of pores. The porosity of sedimentary rocks
such as limestone and sandstone can be as high as 20
percent while the pore volume of granite is very low.
 Because moisture is a key factor in many
deterioration processes, porous masonry materials are
more vulnerable to weathering.
2. Metal
• Metals are solid materials that are typically hard,
malleable, fusible, ductile, and often shiny when new.
• A metal alloy is a mixture or solid solution of two or more
metals. Metals are easily worked and can be melted or
fused, hammered into thin sheets, or drawn into wires.
• Different metals have varying physical and mechanical
properties, aesthetics, and weathering characteristics.
• Ferrous metals and alloys, including cast iron, wrought
iron, and steel, all contain iron.
• Cast iron also contains carbon and silicon and has a
relatively low melting point. When heated to a liquid state,
it can be molded into a variety of shapes.
• Bronze is called the "eternal metal" and is
used for flat markers, statuary, and as
ornamentation in combination with granite and
marble.
3. Wood
• Wood is a porous organic material composed of
tubular cells in a parallel arrangement.
• The structure and characteristics of these cells
determine the wood’s appearance and influence wood
properties. Wood cell walls and cavities contain
moisture. Oven drying reduces the moisture content
of wood. After the drying process, the wood
continues to expand and contract with changes in
moisture content.
• The loss of water from cell walls causes wood to
shrink, sometimes distorting its original shape
Tools and Equipment
1. Measuring tape
2. Jig saw
Compound sliding metre saw ,Sprit level,claw
hammer ,chisel,rubber hammer and sledge hammer
LO #2- Construct footings and prepare monument stones
Purpose of Stone Masonry Footing
• The purpose of stone masonry foundation is to
support structural walls and transfer load to the soil
beneath it. It should serve its purpose without
settlement or sinking. The load exerted on stone
masonry footing should be vertical.
• Construction of Stone Masonry Footing
• Dimensions of Excavation for Stone Masonry
Footing
• Prior to the construction of stone masonry footing, a
trench with depth ranges from 1m to 1.5 m should be
excavated. The width of excavation would be
controlled by amount of loads exerted on the footing.
So, the width of footing is specified based on the
imposed loads and properties of soil on which the
footing is constructed. Then, the soil at the bottom of
the trench needs to be compacted properly. At this
stage, the excavation is ready for the construction of
stone masonry footing.
Fig.1: Trench excavated for stone masonry footing construction
Properties of Stones for Footing
• Stones should possess the following properties otherwise they will
be disqualified for the construction of stone masonry footing:
• The stone should durable
• Free from cracks
• Free from cavity
• It need to be hard and tough
Examples of stones which are desirable for stone masonry footing
construction include granite, hard laminated stand stone and limestone,
and bluestone.
• The thickness of stones should be one fourth of their width
• If it is possible, the width of each stone used for the construction of
footing first course should match the stone masonry footing width. If
such stones are not obtainable, then joints can be provided and it is
acceptable.
Preparation of Stones for Stone Masonry Construction
• Stones need to be adequately wetted before they are
laid in the foundation. this measure is considered to
prevent water absorption which detrimentally affect
the mortar.

Erect Stone Memorial

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Erect Stone Memorial

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Erect Stone Memorial

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SENDAFA BAKE TVET COLEGE

Occupation: Structural Construction Work

People regularly use the words ‘memorial’, ‘monument’ and

You might also like