CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND

TECHNOLOGY
COURSE CONTENTS:
MODULE I 9 Hours
STONES - BRICKS - LIME-CEMENT - CONCRETE BLOCKS
Stone as building material, Criteria for selection ,Tests on stones - Bricks , Classification , Manufacturing of clay bricks, Tests on
bricks , Compressive strength , Water Absorption , Efflorescence - Lime , Preparation of lime mortar - Cement , types ,
Manufacturing process - Concrete hollow blocks - Lightweight concrete blocks

9 Hours
MODULE II TIMBER – GLASS - CERAMICS AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Timber , Market forms , Plywood , Veneer , False ceiling materials - Steel , Mechanical treatment -
- Aluminum , Uses , Market forms - Glass - Ceramics - Refractories - Composite Materials, Types and applications

MODULE III CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES & SERVICE REQUIREMENTS 9 Hours

Types of Foundations - Stone Masonry and Brick Masonry - Plastering and Pointing - Cavity Walls and Diaphragm Walls – Formwork,
Centering and Shuttering, Shoring, Scaffolding and Underpinning - Roofing and Flooring - Joints in concrete ,
Contraction/Construction/Expansion joints - Fire Protection and Thermal Insulation - Ventilation and Air conditioning - Acoustics
and Sound Insulation - Damp Proofing and Anti Termite Treatment.

MODULE IV 9 Hours
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS
Selection of equipment for earthwork excavation – concreting - material handling and erection of structures – Dewatering and
pumping equipment- tunneling equipment - Equipment for compaction, batching, mixing and concreting - Equipment for
foundation and pile driving.

MODULE V 9 Hours
RECENT CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Construction Methods for Bridges - Construction methods for Highway - railways – caisson - cofferdam- Recent Construction
Materials
 Definition and importance of construction materials
• Definition of Construction Materials: Construction materials refer to
the various substances or compounds used in the construction and
building industry to create structures, buildings, and infrastructure.
• These materials can be natural, synthetic, or composite and are
selected based on their specific properties, suitability for the intended
purpose, cost-effectiveness, and environmental considerations.
• Construction materials can be broadly categorized into inorganic
materials (such as concrete, steel, and bricks), organic materials (like
wood), polymers and plastics, composites, and sustainable or eco-
friendly materials.
• Each type of material possesses unique characteristics and properties
that make it suitable for specific applications in the construction
process.
Importance of Construction Materials:
• The selection and use of appropriate construction materials are
fundamental to the success, safety, and sustainability of any construction
project.
Here are key reasons highlighting the importance of construction materials:
• Structural Integrity and Safety: Construction materials are crucial for
ensuring the structural stability and safety of buildings and infrastructure.
• Proper selection and utilization of materials contribute to the integrity
and resilience of the structures.
• Cost Efficiency: Proper material selection based on cost-effectiveness is
crucial in managing the budget of a construction project. Utilizing
suitable materials that offer the required properties at an optimal cost
helps in efficient budget allocation
 STONES

• Stone is a natural construction material that is used since the

prehistoric days.
• It is obtained from quarries in the form of rocks, which is then cut into
the required shape and size and used as building stones.
• Stones that are used for building construction are known as building
stones.
• These are used for constructing different building components like
foundations, walls, lintels, floors, roofs etc. In India, most of the
ancient forts and temples were built using stones.
• Some of examples of buildings constructed using stones are the Red
Fort, Parliament House and Rashtrapati Bhawan at Delhi; The Taj and
the Victoria Memorial at Calcutta; and Vidhan Sabha at Bangalore.
• Classification of Stones
 1.GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
• Geological classification is based on the mode of formation.
• On the basis of Geological formation stones are classified into three main forms
namely igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
• Igneous Rocks:
• Igneous rocks are formed by cooling and solidification of the molten mass lying
above or below the surface of the earth. In general igneous rocks are strong and
durable. Ex: Granite, trap and basalt.
• Granites have crystalline surface since they are formed by slow cooling of the
molten mass under thick layer on the top surface.
• Non-crystalline and glassy textures are formed by the cooling of the molten mass
at the top surface. Ex: Basalt and trap.
Sedimentary Rocks:
• Sedimentary rock properties differ considerably based on the nature of sediment
and bonding between the sediment and grains.
• These rocks thus formed are fine grained, more uniform and dense in their nature.
• In general they represent a bedded or stratified structure. Ex: Sand stones, lime
stones, mud stones, chalk etc.
Metamorphic Rocks:
• Metamorphic Rocks are formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks, since they
undergo changes because of metamorphic action of internal heat and pressure.
• Due to the metamorphic action, granite changes to gneisses, trap and basalt
becomes schist and laterite, lime stone changes to marble, sand stone becomes
quartzite and mud stone changes into slate.
2. PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION
• On the basis of physical appearance stones are classified into three
main forms namely stratified, unstratified and foliated.
• Stratified Rocks: These rocks possess planes of stratification or cleavage.
• Stratified rocks show distinct layers which can be easily split along
these planes. Ex: Sand stones, lime stones, shale, slate etc.
• Unstratified Rocks: These rocks possess compact grains and crystalline.
• These rocks are not stratified and cannot be split into thin layers. Ex:
Granite, marble, basalt, etc.
• Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split up in a distinct
direction.
• In general most of the metamorphic rocks have a foliated structure,
whereas quartzite and marble have granulose structure.
• 3. CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
• On the basis of chemical characteristics stones are categorized into
Silicious, Argillaceous and calcareous rocks.
• Silicious Rocks: These rocks are very hard and durable. The primary-
constituent is silica (SiO2). Ex: Granite, sandstones, trap etc.
• Argillaceous Rocks: These rocks are hard, durable and brittle in
nature. The primary constituent is silica (Al2O3). Ex: Slate, laterite etc.
• Calcareous Rocks: These rocks are formed from a variety of chemical
sediments. The primary constituent is calcium carbonate (CaCO2). Ex:
Limestone, marble, dolomite etc.
 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF GOOD STONE
(Properties / Characteristics of stones)
(i) Structure:
• Structure of a stone layer may be either stratified or unstratified
• Structured stones are easily dressed and are suitable for the
superstructures.
• Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to dress and are preferred
for the foundation works.
(ii) Texture:
• Fine grained stones are usually strong and durable.
• For carving, attractive fine-grained stones with homogeneous
distribution are used.
(iii) Density:
• Light weight stones are weak and denser stones are stronger
• Stones with specific gravity less than 2.4 are not suitable for buildings.
(iv) Appearance:
• Appearance is a chief requirement for the selection of the stone.
• A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are
compact.
• The colour and ability to receive polish greatly influence the
appearance.
• Marble and granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence
they are used for face works in buildings.
(v) Colour
• The colour of stone along with its shape and arrangement of mineral
constituents greatly influence its fashion and ornamental value.
• A stone with uniform and the attractive colour is durable if its grains
are compact.
• The engineer selecting the stone should be aware of the variation of
colour of the stone after long exposure and in polluted atmospheres.
(vi) Strength
• For the selection of stone as a building block, strength is an important
property to be looked for.
• For any building block, minimum crushing strength should be 3.5
N/mm2 as recommended by Indian Standard Code.
• (vii) Hardness:
• When stone is used for flooring and pavement, this is an important property to
be considered
• Coefficient of hardness should be less than 14, for building work stones.
• Coefficient of hardness should be at least 17, for road works
• The stones used in floors and pavements should be able to resist abrasive
movement caused due to the movement of men and materials over them.
(viii) Durability
• The durability of the stone is significantly determined by its resistance to fire and
weathering.
• Stones selected should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural forces
like wind, rain and heat.
• A good stone should not show wear of more than 2%.
(ix) Toughness:
• In general, the resistance to impact is known as toughness, and can
be found by impact test.
• Stones having toughness index 13 to 19 are medium tough and less
than 13 are poor.
• For road works, the toughness index of the stone should be more
than 19.
(x) Porosity and Absorption:
• All stones have pores and hence absorb water.
• The percentage of water absorbed by the stone when it is immersed
underwater for 24 hours should not be more than 5% for a good
stone.
xi) Resistance to Fire and Weathering:
• Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones.
• Stones with good weather resistance should be used for face works.
(xii) Specific Gravity:
• For the construction of dams, retaining walls, harbours, etc. a heavier
variety of stones should be used.
• For a good building stone, specific gravity is between 2.4 and 2.8.
(xiii) Ease in Dressing:
• Dressing is the process of giving required shape to the stone.
• Cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent.
• Dressing is easy in stones with lesser strength. Hence an engineer
should look into sufficient strength rather than high strength while
selecting stones for building works.
(xiv) Seasoning:
• The process of removing moisture from pores is called seasoning.
• If this moisture is removed before using the stone, the strength of the
stone improves.
• The optimum way of seasoning is to let it exposed in the nature for 6
to 12 months.
(xv) Cost:
• Cost is an essential consideration while selecting a building material.
• Cost of dressing has a great contribution in the total cost of stone
masonry.
• Transportation charges, quarrying and cutting costs, adding
ornamental features and the durability of a stone mostly persuades
the total cost.
• Nevertheless, it is prominent that a single stone cannot satisfy all the
criteria's of a good building stone.
• One property may contradict with another, like strength and durability
criteria oppose the ease of dressing requirement.
• Therefore it is essential that, the engineer has to consider the criteria
based on its properties before selecting the stone for particular work.
 COMMONLY USED BUILDING STONES IN INDIA
• The following are the some of the commonly used building stones widely used in
India:
(i) Marble:
• Marble is the most familiar variety of metamorphic rock. It's chemically
calcareous, and is formed from crystallized limestone by metamorphism. It is
chiefly composed of calcium carbonate.
• it is most suitable for sculpture work, flooring, steps, facing and ornamental
works in decorative panels.
(ii) Granite:
• Granite is the most common variety of igneous rock. The hardest and most
durable granites contain a greater proportion of quartz and smaller proportion of
feldspar and mica.
• Used for monumental and and flooring works. Polished granites are used as table
tops and wall cladding.
(iii) Sand stone:
• Sand stone is the most familiar variety of sedimentary rock. It's
physically stratified, chemically siliceous, and is chiefly composed of
quartz
• They are used for masonry work, for dams, bridge piers and river
walls. If required, it is suitable to use sand stones with silica cement
for heavy structures.
(iv) Basalt:
Basalt is the most common variety of igneous rock, formed by
solidification of lava on the earth's surface due to volcanic eruption.
They are used as road metals, aggregates for concrete and also in
rubble masonry works for bridge piers, river walls and dams.
(v) Slate:
• Slate is the well known variety of metamorphic rocks, composed of
quartz, mica and clay minerals.
• Generally slates are used for steps, shelves, roof tiles, pavements and
black boards.
(vi) Limestone:
• Limestones are of sedimentary origin, carbonate of lime being their
principal ingredient.
• They are mostly used as fillers and powdered limestone has industrial
uses.
(vii) Quartzite:
• Quartzite is a metamorphic rock
• They are used as building stones, slabs and even as aggregates for
concrete.
(viii) Gneiss:
• Gneiss is a coarse-grained laminated metamorphic rock
• They are used in minor constructions and as concrete aggregate.
(ix) Laterite:
• Laterite is a metamorphic rock
• Plastering is required on the outer surface when it is used as building
stone.