UNIT II - ROBOT DRIVE SYSTEMS

AND END EFFECTORS

 ACTUATORS
• Actuators are the devices which provide the actual motive
force for the robot joints.
• Actuators are the muscles of robots. If you imagine that the
links and the joints are the skeleton of the robot, the actuators
act as muscles, which moves or rotate the links to change the
configuration of robots. The actuators must have enough
power to accelerate and decelerate the links and to carry the
loads, yet be light, economical, accurate, responsive, reliable
and easy to maintain.
• Actuators in robotic system basically consists of :
– A power supply.
– A power amplifier.
– A servomotor.
– A transmission system.
 Actuator system
Pp : Primary source of power (Electric, Press.fluid,
POWER compress. Air)
SUPPLIES Pc : Input control power usually electric .
Pa : Input power to motor Electric, Hydraulic, or Pneumatic.
Pm: Power output from motor.
PP
Pu : mechanical power required

POWER Pa MOTOR Pm Pu
Pc OR TRANSMISSION
AMPLIFIER SERVO MOTOR

Pda Pds Pdt

Pds, Pdt , Pda : Powers lost in dissipation for the conversion
performed by the Amplifier, Motor, Transmission
 ISSUES/CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
ACTUATOR
• Load (e.g. torque to overcome own inertia)
• Speed (fast enough but not too fast)
• Accuracy (will it move to where you want?)
• Resolution (can you specify exactly where?)
• Repeatability (will it do this every time?)
• Reliability (mean time between failures)
• Power consumption (how to feed it)
• Energy supply & its weight.
 TYPES OF ACTUATORS
• Based on the source of Input Power
actuators are classified in to three groups :
1. Pneumatic Actuators.
• These utilize pneumatic energy provided by the
compressor and transforms it into mechanical
energy by means of pistons or turbines.
2. Hydraulic Actuators.
• These Transform the energy stored in reservoir
into mechanical energy by means of suitable
pumps.
3. Electric Actuators.
• Electric actuators are simply electro-mechanical
devices which allow movement through the use
of an electrically controlled systems of gears
 Pneumatic Actuators

• Use Pressurized Air to achieve motion

• Add great deal of power and speed to any
actuation system.
• Variety of Actuation mechanisms available
– Cylinders
– Grippers
– Motors
 Why go the Pneumatics’ Way?
• Weight
– Cylinders much lighter than motors
• Simple
– Much easier to mount than motors
– Much simpler and more durable than rack and pinion for
linear motion
• Fast on/off type tasks
• Big forces with elasticity
• No leak problems
• No burnout
– Cylinders can be stalled indefinitely without damage
 What can deter you on your
way?
• All the components are quite expensive
• A properly designed system is more complex than an
equivalent electromechanical system (electric
motors, power screws, linear actuators, etc.).
• All these components take up quite a bit of valuable
space within a robot.
• All the way in or all the way out
• No weight advantage if only one cylinder used (still
need compressor, reservoir, pressure sensors,
regulator)
A Typical Pneumatic System
 Advantages
• Lightweight - Air Muscles weigh as little as 10 grammes - particularly
useful for weight-critical applications.
• Lower Cost - Air Muscles are cheaper to buy and install than other
actuators and pneumatic cylinders.
• Smooth - Air Muscles have no 'stiction' and have an immediate response.
This results in smooth and natural movement.
• Flexible - Air Muscles can be operated when twisted axially, bent round a
corner, and need no precise aligning.
• Powerful - Air Muscles produce an incredible force especially when fully
stretched.
• Damped - Air Muscles are self-dampening when contracting (speed of
motion tends to zero), and their flexible material makes them inherently
cushioned when extending.
• Compliant - Being a soft actuator, Air Muscles systems are inherently
compliant.
Properties
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators

• Both these actuators are powered by moving fluids.

• In the first case, the fluid is compressed air and
• In the second case, the fluid is pressurized oil.
• Pneumatic systems typically operate at about
100lb/in2
• Hydraulic systems at 1000 to 3000 lb/in2.
 Both Hydraulic and Pneumatic actuators are
classified as
• linear Actuators (Cylinders).
• Rotary Actuators (Motors).
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators

linear Actuators
 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators

linear Actuators
• The simplest power device could be used to
actuate a linear joint by means of a moving
piston.
• There are two relationships of particular
interest when discussing actuators:
1. The velocity of the actuator with respect to
input power and
2. Force of the actuator with respect to the input
power.
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators

linear Actuators
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators

Rotary Actuators
 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators

Rotary Actuators
• There is a relationship of particular interest when
discussing Rotary actuator:
• The angular velocity, ω, and Torque, T.

• R, outer radius of the vane., r, inner radius., h,

thickness of the vane., ω, angular velocity., T,
torque.
 Advantages and limitations of
Pneumatic actuators

ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
• It is cheapest form of all actuators. • Since air is compressible, precise control
Components are readily available and of speed and position is not easily
compressed air normally is an readily obtainable unless much more complex
available facility in factories.
electro mechanical devices are
• Compressed air can be stored and conveyed
incorporated in to system.
easily over long distances.
•
• If mechanical stops are used resetting
They have few moving parts making them
inherently reliable and reducing the system can be slow.
maintenance costs. • If moisture penetrates the units and
• They have quick action and response time ferrous metals have been used then
thus allowing for fast work cycles. damage to individual components may
• No mechanical transmission is usually happen.
required.
• These systems are usually compact thus the
control is simple e.g: mechanical stops are
often used.
 Advantages and limitations of
Hydraulic actuators
ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS

• High efficiency and high power to size • Leakages can occur causing a loss in
ratio. performance and general
• Complete and accurate control over contamination of the work area.
speed position and direction of actuators There is also a higher fire risk.
are possible.
•
• The power pack can be noisy
No mechanical linkage is required i.e., a
direct drive is obtained with mechanical typically about 70 decibel or louder if
simplicity. not protected by an acoustic muffler.
• They generally have a greater load • Changes in temp alter the viscosity
carrying capacity than electric and of hydraulic fluid. Thus at low
pneumatic actuators. temperatures fluid viscosity will
• Self lubricating and non corrosive. increase possibly causing sluggish
• Hydraulic robots are more capable of movement of the robot.
with standing shock loads than electric
robots.
 Electric and Stepper Motors

• There are a variety of types of motors used in

robots. The most common types are
Servomotors and Stepper motors.
–Electric actuators are simply electro-
mechanical devices which allow movement
through the use of an electrically controlled
systems of gear.
 ELECTRIC MOTORS
• Electric motors usually have a small rating,
ranging up to a few horsepower.
• They are used in small appliances, battery
operated vehicles, for medical purposes and
in other medical equipment like x-ray
machines.
• Electric motors are also used in toys, and in
automobiles as auxiliary motors for the
purposes of seat adjustment, power windows,
sunroof, mirror adjustment, blower motors,
engine cooling fans.
 STATOR

ROTATING
(COMMUTATOR)

ARMATURE

Brushes
 COMPONENTS OF DC ELECTRIC
MOTOR
• The principle components of an electric motor are: North
and south magnetic poles to provide a strong magnetic field.
Being made of bulky ferrous material they traditionally form
the outer casing of the motor and collectively form the
stator.
• An armature, which is a cylindrical ferrous core rotating
within the stator and carries a large number of windings
made from one or more conductors.
• A commutator, which rotates with the armature and consists
of copper contacts attached to the end of the windings.
• Brushes in fixed positions and in contact with the rotating
commutator contacts. They carry direct current to the coils,
resulting in the required motion.
 ELECTRIC MOTORS
• DC motors :In DC motors, the stator is a set of fixed permanent
magnets, creating a fixed magnetic field, while the rotor carries a
current. Through brushes and commutators, the direction of current
is changed continuously, causing the rotor to rotate continuously.
• AC motors : These are similar to DC motors except that the rotor is
permanent magnet, the stator houses the windings, and all
commutators and brushes are eliminated.
• A Servomotor is a DC,AC, brushless, or even stepper motor with
feedback that can be controlled to move at a desired speed (and
consequently, torque), for a desired angle of rotation. To do this, a
feedback device sends signals to the controller circuit of the
servomotor reporting its angular position and velocity.
 COMPONENTS OF DC ELECTRIC
MOTOR
A simple DC electric motor: when the coil is powered, a magnetic field is
generated around the armature. The left side of the armature is pushed away
from the left magnet and drawn toward the right, causing rotation. The
armature continues to rotate, When the armature becomes horizontally
aligned, the commutator reverses the direction of current through the coil,
reversing the magnetic field. The process then repeats.
 What is stepper motor

It is device which transforms electrical pulses into equal

increments of rotary shaft motion called steps.
• Used in ‘small’ robots with small payload and “low” speeds.
• Stepper motors are of permanent magnet, hybrid or
• variable reluctance type.
• Actuated by a sequence of pulses — For a single pulse,
rotor rotates by a known step such that poles on stator and
rotor are aligned.
• Typical step size is 1.8◦ or 0.9◦.
• Speed and direction can be controlled by frequency of
• pulses.
• Can be used in open-loop as cumulative error and maximum
error is one step!
• Micro-stepping possible with closed-loop feedback control.
Parts of a Stepper Motor
 Types of Stepper motors

Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motors - Number of teeth in the inner

rotor is different than the number of teeth in stator.

Permanent Magnet (PM) Stepper Motors – Similar to VR but rotor is radially

magnetized.

Hybrid Stepper Motors – Combines best features of VR and PM stepper

motors.
 STEPPER MOTOR
• When incremental rotary motion is required in a
robot, it is possible to use stepper motors.
• A stepper motor possesses the ability to move a
specified number of revolutions or fraction of a
revolution in order to achieve a fixed and consistent
angular movement.
• This is achieved by increasing the numbers of poles on
both rotor and stator
• Additionally, soft magnetic material with many teeth
on the rotor and stator cheaply multiplies the number
of poles(reluctance motor)
 Working principle

1) Electro-magnet 1 is activated --- Rotor rotates up such that nearest teeth line up.
2) Electro-magnet 1 is deactivated and 2 is turned on -- Rotor rotates such that nearest
teeth line up – rotation is by a step (designed amount) of typically 1.8 or 0.9 degrees.
3) Electro-magnet 2 is deactivated and 3 is turned on--Rotor rotates by another step.
4) Electro-magnet 3 is deactivated and 4 is turned on and cycle repeated.
STEPPER MOTOR
 Stepper Motor Terminology

• Stepping Rate - maximum number of steps the motor

• Step Angle - number of degrees per arc the motor moves per
step
– Step angle is determined by the number of rotor teeth and
stator poles used
 Stepper Motor Speed

• Stepper motor speed depends upon the

step angle and stepping rate

n = Speed in RPM
YxS Y = Step angles in degrees
n = S = Steps per second
6 6 = Formula constant
 Micro stepping
• Stepper motors tend to jerk at low speeds
• Stepper motors have limited resolution
• Micro stepping overcomes these problems
– Uses simulated sine waves that increment or
decrement in small steps called micro steps
Micro stepper Operation
 Use of Stepper Motor

• Requirement of Controlled Movement

• Particular position of the shaft
• Some Application
– Printers
– Fax machines
– Hard Disk drives
– Medical Equipment etc.,
 Drawbacks with stepper motors

• Very low torque to weight ratio

• Torque decreases with increase in the

stepping frequency
Advantages:

- The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the

input pulse
- Excellent response to starting, stopping and reversing
- Precise positioning and repeatability.

Disadvantages:

- Resonances
- Not in High speeds
 AC Servo Motors

• Controlled by AC command signals applied to the

coils
• AC Brushless Servo Motor
– Operates on the same principle as single-phase
induction motor
 AC Brushless Servo Motor
• Two windings
– Main winding
– Auxiliary winding
• Electronic drive provides
the necessary phase
shift for motor
operation
 APPLICATIONS

• Stepper motors can be a good choice whenever

controlled movement is required.
• They can be used to advantage in applications where
you need to control rotation angle, speed, position
and synchronism. These include :
• printers
• plotters
• medical equipment
• fax machines
• automotive and scientific equipment etc.
DC Servo Motors
 ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS OF
ELECTRIC ACTUATORS
ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
• Wide spread availability of power • Electric actuators often require some
supply. sort of mechanical transmission
• The basic dive element in an electric system this increases the unwanted
motor is usually lighter than that for movement, additional power and
fluid power. may complicate control.
• High power conversion efficiency. • Due to increased complexity of the
• No pollution of working environment transmission system additional cost
is incurred for their procurement
• The accuracy and repeatability of
and maintenance.
electric power driven robots are
normally better than fluid power • Electric motors are not intrinsically
robots in relation to cost. safe. They cannot therefore be used
in for example explosive
• Easily maintained and repaired.
atmospheres.
• The drive system is well suited to
electronic control.
 Comparison of actuating systems

Hydraulic Electric Pneumatic

+ Good for large robots + Good for all size of + Many components are
and heavy payload Robots usually off-the-shelf
+Highest Power/Weight +Better control, good for +Reliable components.
Ratio high precision robots
+Stiff system, High +Higher Compliance that +No leaks or sparks
accuracy, better response Hydraulics
+Inexpensive and simple
+No reduction gear +Reduction gears used
needed reduce inertia on the
+Can work in wide range motor +Low pressure compared
of speeds without to hydraulics
+does not leak, good for
difficulty
clean room + Good for on-off
+Can be left in position applications and for pick
+Reliable, low
without any damage and place
maintenance
 Comparison of actuating systems

Hydraulic Electric Pneumatic

- May leak. Not fit for clean +Can be spark-free. Good for +Complaint systems.
room application explosive environment.
-Requires pump, reservoir, -Noisy systems.
-Low stiffness
motor, hoses etc.
-Can be expensive and noisy, -Needs reduction gears,
- Require air pressure, filter,
requires maintenance. increased backlash, cost,
etc.
weight, etc.
-Viscosity of oil changes with -Difficult to control their
-Motor needs braking device
temperature linear position
when not powered.
-Very susceptible to dirt and Otherwise, the arm will fail.
-Deform under load
other foreign material in oil
constantly
-Low compliance -
-Very low stiffness. Inaccurate
-
-High torque, High pressure, response.
large inertia on the actuator. - -Lowest power to weight ratio
END EFFECTORS
 Consider typical robots…

What could a robot do without “end effectors”?

 Common end effectors

1. Tools
Spot welding
Arc welding
Drilling, grinding, de-burring, etc.
Cutting device (laser, water jet, torch, etc.)
Spray painting
Common end effectors (cont)
2. Grippers
Mechanical
Vacuum
Magnetized
Adhesive
Simple (hooks, scoops)
GRIPPERS
 History of the Gripper
The first gripper, or artificial
hand, was probably a hook
replacing a lost human hand.
An artificial hand is first
recorded in 1509---an iron
hand made for a German
knight.
Unimate
Rancho Arm
Stanford Arm
Silver Arm
 Current State

Great variety of grippers available.

Used widely in many different fields: nuclear
science, aeronautics and medical robotics.
With the development of technology, micro
grippers(better 1nm resolution) appear.
 Servo Grip

• Precise
• Limited range
of motion
• Limited
torque

Robert’s ARL robot in 2006

 Motorized Grip

• Can be geared
for speed or
torque
• More
complex

FVC Team 31 in 2005

 Pneumatic Grip

• Powerful
• Reliable
• Requires
entire
(unreliable)
pneumatics
system
Some robot
 Roller Grip

• Slow
• Allows for
misalignment
when grabbing
• Won’t let go
• Extends object as
releasing
• Simple
mechanism

FVC Team 34 in 2005

 Basics
Grippers are end effectors used to grasp and
manipulate objects during the work cycle.

The easier way to describe a gripper is to think of the

human hand. Just like a hand, a gripper enables
holding, tightening, handling and releasing of an object

A gripper is just one component of an automated

system. A gripper can be attached to a robot or it can
be part of a fixed automation system.
 Basics -Gripper Style
Angular: The gripper jaws are opened and
closed around a central pivot point, moving in a
sweeping or arcing motion. Angular grippers are
often used when limited space is available or
when the jaws need to move up and out of the
way.
 Basics -Gripper Style
Parallel: The gripper jaws move in a parallel
motion in relation to the gripper body. Used in
a majority of applications, parallel grippers are
typically more accurate than other style
grippers.
 Where used?

Machine loading/unloading
Assembly lines
Material transfer
Manufacturing processes
Machine loading/unloading
Assembly lines
Material transfer
Who uses it? What used for? When used?
Workers in nuclear science use grippers to
move things remotely when the things dealt
with are dangerous for body health.

Astronauts can manipulate remote-controlled

grippers in space from within the safety of the
spacecraft when they are building the space
station.
 Costs

Based on what you need:

The object
Material
Robot
Supporting Technology

Sensors
Power supply
Drive system
Control system
 Application Rules
Things to be considered in choosing what type of gripper a
robot should use:
The weight of the part
The gripping distance from the center of gravity of the part
The coefficient of friction between the part and the gripper
The gravitation force (G) involved in moving the part
The angle of the gripper’s fingers to each other
The necessary safety factor
The part’s characteristics
 Application Rules

Parallel grippers have their own set of

specifications. These include gripping force, stroke
and gripping size.
Angular grippers have a specific set of
specifications. These include gripping torque,
angular stroke, 180 degrees open, and gripping
size.
 Basics
Gripper Actuation:
Manual: Actuated by hand crank, wheel, levers, or other
manual or mechanical means.
Electric: Grippers fingers or jaws actuated by electric
motor, solenoid, etc.
Pneumatic: Gripper is actuated by compressed air acting
on a cylinder or vanes.
Hydraulic: Gripper is actuated by hydraulic fluid acting on
a cylinder or vanes.
 Electric Gripper

Motor
gears
Jaw

nut

Shaft
Pneumatic Gripper

Jaws

Piston High Pressure

 Hydraulic Gripper

chamber
O-ring
jaws

door

pin
spring
piston
Advantages and Disadvantages
Pneumatic Electric Motor Hydraulic

Smaller units, quick High accuracy and High strength and high
assembly repeatability speed

High cycle rate Less floor space Large robots, Takes

floor space

Easy maintenance Low cost Mechanical Simplicity

Easy maintenance Used usually for heavy

payloads
Mechanical Grippers
Main Types of Mechanical Grippers
Parallel Angular 2 or more
“fingers”
Mechanical Grippers: Applications
Mechanical grippers are used to pick up, move, place, or hold parts in an
automated system. They can be used in harsh or dangerous environments.
Mechanical Grippers: Applications

Holding a cast wheel while it is being cleaned with live steam.

Mechanical Gripper Specifications
“I need a gripper to pick up this 70 lb part” You look in your catalogs and find these
grippers…

So you order this one.

You must consider all of the possible forces…

 Gripper Specification Example

2 ft.

70 lbs
Mechanical Grippers: Limitations
•Watch out for dynamic forces and moments when sizing a gripper.
•Gripper could drop part with loss in air pressure (can order spring
clamps to solve this problem)
•Angular grippers are less expensive, but the arcing motion of the
jaws may require additional tooling clearance and will grip at
varying points as part width varies. A parallel gripper is simpler to
tool to compensate for part size variance.
Mechanical Gripper Specifications
Grip force: ranges tiny forces .1 lbs to over 1600 lbs (don’t forget dynamic
forces, moments)
Part sizes: typically .01 to 36 inches
Number of jaws: typically 2 to 4 jaws or fingers
Repeatability: typically +/- .001 to .005 inches
Cost: $100 to $1,000
Cycles to failure: up to 10 million cycles
Supporting technologies: air valves, air compressors, sensors, I/O interfaces
Companies: Thomas Register lists 100+ vendors. Here are the largest:
PHD, inc. Fairlane
Robohand Robotic Accessories
Zaytran Magnum
Vacuum Grippers
Vacuum Grippers
 Types of Vacuum Grippers
- One vendor, Piab Inc., claims “A suitable suction cup is
available for virtually any situation – with very few
exceptions.
- Suction cups are very well suited for a wide variety of
needs and circumstances.
- They can handle plate, eggs, paper, wood – practically
any material. Be it smooth, irregular, bent, porous,
airtight, lightweight, heavy, angled, hot or cold, the
material can be handled by suction cups safely, gently
and quickly.”
 Types of Vacuum Grippers

Small to medium Large, heavy Uneven

objects objects objects
 Types of Vacuum Grippers
Level compensator
A level compensator compensates for
differences in level and absorbs
shocks. The mounting also reduces
the need for accurate positioning in
height.
 Vacuum Grippers Application
PACKAGING:
Canning
Tray Making
Bottling
Box Making
Capping
Labeling
Bagging & Sealing
MATERIAL HANDLING:
Auto Manufacturing
Steel Fabricators
Conveyors
Manufacture & Packaging of Compact Dics
Electronics
Heavy Industry
Vacuum Gripper Specifications

Watch out for lifting forces parallel to the surface!

Don’t forget the dynamic forces.
 Vacuum Gripper Specifications
Gripping force: generally up to 300 lbs. Multiple cups can pick up to 6,000
Pressures: requires –3 to –15 psi gage
Sizes: suction cups typically range between .05 and 18 inch diameters
Cost: Suction cup assembly
Supporting Technologies: Compressors, lines, valves, air filters, controllers
 Magnetic Gripper

1. Electromagnetic Gripper

2. Permanent Magnetic Gripper