Chemical Coordination

GLANDS AND HORMONES

• A gland is an organ that releases or secretes a substance.

• This means that cells in the gland make a chemical which leaves the
cells through the cell membrane.

• The chemical then travels somewhere else in the body, where it carries
out its function.
• There are two types of glands - exocrine and endocrine glands.

• Exocrine glands secrete their products through a tube called a duct.

• For example, salivary glands in your mouth secrete saliva down salivary
ducts, and tear glands secrete tears through ducts that lead to the
surface of the eye.

• Endocrine glands have no duct, and so are called ductless glands.

• Instead, their products, the hormones, are secreted into the blood
vessels that pass through the gland (Figure 7.1).
• This chapter looks at some of the main
endocrine glands and the functions of
the hormones they produce.

• Because hormones are carried in the

blood, they can travel to all areas of the
body.

• They usually only affect certain tissues

or organs, called 'target organs', which
can be a long distance from the gland
that made the hormone.
• Hormones only affect particular
tissues or organs if the cells of that
tissue or organ have special chemical
receptors for the particular hormone.

• For example, the hormone insulin

affects the cells of the liver, which
have insulin receptors.
KEY POINT
• The receptors for some hormones are located in the cell membrane of
the target cell.

• Other hormones have receptors in the cytoplasm, and some in the

nucleus.

• Without specific receptors, a cell will not respond to a hormone at all.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NERVOUS AND ENDOCRINE
CONTROL
Nervous system Endocrine system

woks by nerve impulses transmitted through works by hormones transmitted through the
nerve cells (although bloodstream
chemicals are used at synapses)

nerve impulses travel fast and usually have an hormones travel more slowly and generally take
'instant' effect longer to act

response is usually short-lived response is usually longer-lasting

impulses act on individual cells such as muscle hormones can have widespread effects on
fibres, so have a very localised effect different organs (although they only act on
particular tissues or organs if the cells have the
correct receptors)
THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• The positions of the main
endocrine glands are shown in
Figure 7.2.

• A summary of some of the

hormones that they make and
their functions is given in Table

7.2.
• The pituitary gland (often just called 'the pituitary') is found at the base of
the brain.

• It produces a number of hormones, including antidiuretic hormone

(ADH), which acts on the kidneys, controlling the amount of water in the
blood.

• The pituitary also releases hormones that regulate reproduction.

• Just above the pituitary is a part of the brain called the hypothalamus.

• The pituitary contains neurones linking it to the hypothalamus, and

some of its hormones are produced under the control of the brain.
Table 7.2: Some of the main endocrine glands, the hormones they produce and
their functions.
Gland Hormone Some functions of Hormones

pituitary follicle stimulating hormone • stimulates egg development and oestrogen / secretion in females
(FSH) and sperm production in males
luteinising hormone (LH) • stimulates egg release (ovulation) in females and testosterone
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) production in males
• controls the water content of the blood

thyroid thyroxine controls the body's metabolic rate (how last chemical reactions take
place in cells)
pancreas insulin lowers blood glucose
glucagon raises blood glucose
adrenals adrenaline prepares the body for physical activity
testes testosterone controls the development of male secondary sexual characteristics
ovaries oestrogen controls the development of female secondary sexual characteristics
progesterone regulates the menstrual cycle
• The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland.

• It secretes two hormones involved in the regulation of blood glucose,

and is also a gland of the digestive system, secreting enzymes through
the pancreatic duct into the small intestine.

• The sex organs of males (testes) and females (ovaries) are also
endocrine organs.

• In addition to their role in producing sex cells, the testes and ovaries
make hormones that are involved in controlling reproduction.
KEY POINT
• The pituitary is a link between the nervous and endocrine coordination
systems.
 ADRENALINE - THE 'FIGHT OR FLIGHT' HORMONE

• When you are frightened, excited or angry, your adrenal glands secrete the
hormone adrenaline.

• Adrenaline acts at a number of target organs and tissues, preparing the body
for action.

• In animals other than humans this action usually means dealing with an attack
by an enemy, where the animal can stay and fight or run away - hence 'fight or
flight'.
• This is not often a problem with
humans, but there are plenty of
other times when adrenaline is
released (Figure 7.3).
DID YOU KNOW?
• 'Adrenal' means 'next to the kidneys', which describes where
the adrenal glands are located - on top of these organs (see
Figure 7.2).
• If an animal's body is going to be
prepared for action, the muscles
need a good supply of oxygen and
glucose for respiration.

• Adrenaline produces several

changes in the body that make this
happen (Figure 7.4) as well as other
changes to prepare for fight or
flight.
The breathing rate increases and
breaths become deeper, taking
more oxygen into the body.

The heart beats faster, sending

more blood to the muscles, so
that they receive more glucose
and oxygen for respiration.

Blood is diverted away from the

intestine and into the muscles.
In the liver, stored carbohydrate (glycogen) is changed into glucose and
released into the blood.

The muscle cells absorb more glucose and use it for respiration.

The pupils dilate, increasing visual sensitivity to movement.

Body hair stands upright, making the animal look larger to an enemy.

Mental awareness is increased, so reactions are faster.

• In humans, adrenaline is not just released in a 'fight or flight' situation,
but in many other stressful activities too, such as preparing for a race,
going for a job interview or taking an exam.
 INSULIN - CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE

• You saw earlier that adrenaline can raise blood glucose from stores in the liver.

• The liver cells contain carbohydrate in the form of glycogen.

• Glycogen is made from long chains of glucose sub-units joined together, forming
a large insoluble molecule.

increase blood sugar--> pancreas--->insulin----->liver-------->glucose to glycogen

• Being insoluble makes glycogen a good storage product.

• When the body is short of glucose, the glycogen can be broken down
into glucose, which then passes into the bloodstream.
• Adrenaline raises blood glucose concentration in an emergency, but
other hormones act all the time to control the level, keeping it fairly
constant at a little less than 1 g of glucose in every dm3 (cubic
decimetre) of blood.

• The main hormone controlling glucose is insulin.

• Insulin is made by special cells in the pancreas.

• It stimulates the liver cells to take up glucose and convert it into

glycogen, lowering the level of glucose in the blood.
• The concentration of glucose in your blood will start to rise after you
have had a meal.

• Sugars from digested carbohydrate pass into the blood and are carried
to the liver in the hepatic portal vein.

• In the liver the glucose is converted to glycogen, so the blood leaving the
liver in the hepatic vein has a lower concentration of glucose than when
it enters the liver.
DID YOU KNOW?
• The pancreas also makes a hormone called glucagon, which
has the opposite effect to insulin - it raises blood glucose.
• Some people have a disease where their pancreas cannot make
enough insulin to keep their blood glucose level constant - it rises
to very high concentrations.

• The disease is called diabetes.

• One symptom of diabetes can be detected by a chemical test on

urine.

• Normally, people have no glucose at all in their urine.

• Someone suffering from diabetes may have such a high

concentration of glucose in the blood that it is excreted in their
urine.

• This can be shown up by using coloured test strips (Figure 7.5).

KEY POINT
• We should really refer to this disease by its full name, which is 'type 1' diabetes.

• There is also a 'type 2' diabetes, where the pancreas produces insulin but the body shows
insulin resistance, where insulin has less effect than it should do.

• At first the pancreas makes extra insulin, but eventually it can't continue to make enough
to maintain blood glucose at a nomnal level.

• Type 2 diabetes is common in people who are overweight and eat a poor diet that is high
in sugar and other carbohydrates.

• It can be prevented and controlled by eating a good diet and doing regular exercise.

• Type 2 diabetes also tends to happen in middle-aged or older people, whereas type 1 can
happen at any age, and is common in childhood.
• Another symptom of diabetes is a constant thirst.

• This is because the high blood glucose concentration stimulates

receptors in the hypothalamus of the brain.

• These 'thirst centres' are stimulated, so that by drinking, the person will
dilute their blood.

• Severe diabetes is very serious.

• If it is untreated, the sufferer loses weight and becomes weak and

eventually falls into a coma and dies.
• Carbohydrates in the diet, such as starch and sugars, are the source of
glucose in the blood, so a person with diabetes can help to control their
blood sugar if they limit the amount of carbohydrate that they eat.

• However a person with diabetes (type 1) also needs to receive daily

injections of insulin to keep the glucose in their blood at the right level.
• People with diabetes can check their blood glucose using a special
sensor.

• They prick their finger and place a drop of blood on a test strip.

• The strip is then put into the sensor, which gives them an accurate
reading of how much glucose is in their blood (Figure 7.6).

• They can then tell when to inject insulin and how much to inject.