UNIT - 5

Layout of Generation Transmission & Distribution

 Transmission of Electrical Energy
Two systems by which electrical energy can be transmitted.
(1) High voltage DC electrical transmission system.
(2) High voltage AC electrical transmission system.
Advantages in using DC transmission system-
i) Only two conductor are required for DC transmission system. It is
further possible to use only one conductor of DC transmission system if
earth is utilized as return path of the system.
ii) The potential stress on the insulator of DC transmission system is about
70% of same voltage AC transmission system. Hence less insulation
cost is involved in DC transmission system.
iii) Inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems can
be eliminated in DC system.

04/05/2024 3
 Advantage of AC transmission system

Even having these advantages in DC system, generally electrical

energy is transmitted by three phase AC transmission system.

i) The alternating voltages can easily be stepped up & down, which

is not possible in DC transmission system.

ii) Maintenance of AC substation is quite easy and economical

compared to DC system.

iii) The transforming in AC electrical sub station is much easier

than motor-generator sets in DC system.

04/05/2024 4
 Disadvantages of AC transmission system
i) The volume of conductor used in AC system is much higher than that of DC.
ii)The reactance of the line, affects the voltage regulation of electrical power
transmission system.
iii) Problems of skin effects and proximity effects only found in AC system.
iv) AC transmission system is more likely to be affected by corona effect than DC
system.
v) Construction of AC electrical power transmission network is more
complicated than DC system.
vi) Proper synchronizing is required before inter connecting two or more
transmission lines together, synchronizing can totally be omitted in DC
transmission system.
04/05/2024 5
Simple layout of Generation,
Transmission and
Distribution of power
OR
Simple layout of Electrical
Power System

6
COMPARISON OF OVERHEAD (OH) AND UNDERGROUND (UG)
SYSTEMS
In city area, secondary distribution of power is done by UG cable system.
Sometimes the primary distribution is by means of UG cable system. The
OH line and UG cable systems are compared based on the following
factors.
(i) Public Safety: UG cable is preferred, as there is less chance of any
hazard to the public.
(ii) Initial cost: the initial investment on UG cable system is about 10
times the rate on OH line system. So, OH line system is preferred.
(iii) Flexibility: OH line system is more flexible than the UG cable
system. OH line system can be modified easily.
(iv) Faults: The chances of occurrence of fault in an UG cable system is
less when compared to the OH line system, as it is exposed to the
atmosphere. 7
(v) Appearance: The general appearance of UG cable system is
better.
(vi) Fault location and Repair: Fault location and rectification of
fault is easier in OH line system.
(vii) Useful life: The useful life period of an OH line system is
only 50% that of UG cable system.
(viii) Maintenance cost: The maintenance cost of UG cable
system is low, as the chance of fault is less in an UG cable
system.
(ix) Interference with communication circuits. It is less with
an UG cable system and more with an OH line system.
HVDC System
Types of DC link:
For connecting two networks or system, various types of HVDC
links are used. HVDC links are classified into three types. These links
are explained below:
1) Monopolar link: It has a single conductor of negative polarity and
uses earth or sea for the return path of current. Sometimes the metallic
return is also used. In the Monopolar link, two converters are placed at
the end of each pole. Earthling of poles is done by earth electrodes
placed about 15 to 55 km away from the respective terminal stations.
But this link has several disadvantages because it uses earth as a
return path. The monopolar link is not much in use nowadays.

Monopolar DC link

10
2.Bipolar link: The Bipolar link has two conductors one is positive,
and the other one is negative to the earth. The link has converter
station at each end. The midpoints of the converter stations are
earthed through electrodes. The voltage of the earthed electrodes is
just half the voltage of the conductor used for transmission the
HVDC. The most significant advantage of the bipolar link is that if
any of their links stop operating, the link is converted into Monopolar
mode because of the ground return system. The half of the system
continues supplies the power. Such types of links are commonly used
in the HVDC systems.

Bipolar DC link
11
3) Homopolar link : It has two conductors of the same polarity
usually negative polarity, and always operates with earth or metallic
return. In the homopolar link, poles are operated in parallel, which
reduces the insulation cost. The homopolar system is not used
presently.

Homopolar DC link

12
Equipment in a Transformer Sub-Station

1. Bus-bars

2. Insulators

3. Isolating switches

4. Circuit breaker

5. Power Transformers

6. Instrument transformers.

7. Metering and Indicating Instruments

8. Miscellaneous equipment
11kV/400V Indoor Substation
The key diagram of this 11 kV/400 V sub-station can be explained as
under :
(i) The 3-phase, 3-wire 11 kV line is tapped and brought to the gang operating
switch installed near the sub-station. The G.O. switch consists of isolators
connected in each phase of the 3-phase line.
(ii) From the G.O. switch, the 11 kV line is brought to the indoor sub-station
as underground cable. It is fed to the H.T. side of the transformer (11 kV/400
V) via the 11 kV O.C.B. The transformer steps down the voltage to 400 V, 3-
phase, 4-wire.
(iii) The secondary of transformer supplies to the bus-bars via the main O.C.B.
From the busbars, 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire supply is given to the various
consumers via 400 V O.C.B. The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and
between any phase and neutral it is 230 V. The single phase residential load
is connected between any one phase and neutral whereas 3-phase, 400 V
motor load is connected across 3-phase lines directly.
(iv) The CTs are located at suitable places in the sub-station circuit and
supply for the metering and indicating instruments and relay circuits. 15
Traditional Power Grid
Smart Grid
Safety Precautions when Working with Electricity
1. Never touch or try repairing any electrical equipment or circuits with
wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electric current.
2. Never use equipment with damaged insulation or broken plugs.
3. If you are working on any electrical socket at your home then always
turn off the mains.
4. Always use insulated tools while working.(never use aluminium or
steel ladder )
5. Electrical hazards include exposed energized parts and unguarded
electrical equipment which may become energized unexpectedly -carries
warning signs like “Shock Risk”. Always be observant such electrical
signs.
18
6. when working electrical circuit always use appropriate insulated
rubber gloves and goggles.
7. Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-
energized first by using a tester. When an electric tester touches a live or
hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up showing that an electrical
current is flowing through the respective wire.
8. Know the wire code of your country.
9. Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the appropriate current
rating. Circuit breakers and fuses are protection devices that
automatically disconnect the live wire when a condition of short circuit
or over current occurs. The selection of the appropriate fuse or circuit
breaker is essential.
19
 Electrical safety devices
• It is extremely important to have various safety devices to protect
from fire and electrocution.

FUSE: A fuse is an electrical safety device that has the capability to

protect an electric circuit from excessive electric current. It is designed
to allow current through the circuit, but in the event that the current
exceeds some maximum value it will open, severing the circuit.

Circuit breaker: Circuit breakers are devices that protect circuits from
overload current conditions. They do the same job as fuses, but they
are not destroyed when activated.
 Earthing
 The potential of the earth is considered to be at zero for all
practical purposes.
 Earthing is to connect any electrical equipment to earth with a
very low resistance wire, making it to attain earth’s potential.
 This ensures safe discharge of electric energy, which may be
due to reasons like failure of the insulation, line coming in contact
with the casing etc.
 Earthing brings the potential of the body of the equipment to
ZERO i.e. to the earth’s potential, thus protecting the operating
personnel against electrical shock.
22
Importance of Earthing
 Necessity of Earthing

• To protect the operating personnel from danger of shock in case they

come in contact with the charged frame due to defective insulation.

• To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load condition.

• Protection of the equipments

• Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from overhead lines

against lightning.
 Methods of Earthing

• Conventional Earthing

• Maintenance Free Earthing

 Maintenance Free Earthing

Its Benefits are

• Maintenance Free
• Consistency
• More Surface Area
• Low Earth Resistance: Highly Conductive. Carries High Peak
Current Repeatedly.
• No Corrosion
• Long Life
• Easy Installation
 Methods of Conventional Earthing

1. Plate Earthing

2. Pipe Earthing

3. Rod Earthing

4. Strip Earthing
30
31
 Renewable Energy
 Renewable energy is a term used to refer to forms of energy that are
naturally obtained from the environment and from sources that can be
replenished naturally.
 These include solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy,
hydropower, and biomass.
Advantages of Renewable Energy
 Less maintenance cost as most sources entail few or no moving parts,
hence, less mechanical damages.
 Economical and can cut costs spent on fossil fuel.
 They emit little or no waste in the environment.
 Renewable energy sources do not deplete.
 Solar Photovoltaic system
A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an
electrical device that converts light energy into electrical energy through the
photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode. Solar cells
are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical
characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when exposed
to light.
 Solar cells, a type of semiconductor
device that efficiently absorbs solar
radiation and converts it into electrical
energy, are also known as photovoltaic
cells because of their photo-voltaic
effect using various potential barriers.

 A photovoltaic cell is also called a

solar cell. It is a semiconductor device
which converts sunlight into DC power
using the photoelectric effect. Practically,
all solar cells are photodiodes made of
semiconductor material like silicon.
 A solar cell works in three steps: Photons in the sunlight hit the solar
cell and are absorbed by the semiconductor material. Negatively-charged
electrons are knocked off from their atoms and start flowing in the same
direction to produce electric current.

 Output of a single solar cell is very small, a large number of solar cells
are interconnected to form a solar module, combination of solar
modules is called panel and combination of panels is called solar array. It
is done to get the required power output from a PV system.

 When the solar cells are connected in series their voltage increases as
much as the number of cells connected in series. But the current remains
the same. When cells are connected in parallel, voltage remains constant,
same as that of one cell but current gets multiplied
Solar Photovoltaic system
 Introduction to Energy Storage

 Energy storage systems have been

in use for a very long time, for
diverse applications.
Quantitative property held by an
object or a system that can be
consumed to perform work or
convert the form of energy.
retention of anything, whether
physical or virtual, for (possible)
usage in the future.
(i) Portable electronics (ii) Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

(iii) Energy offset for renewable energy

 Overview of Battery
 Batteries are a collection of one or more cells whose chemical
reactions create a flow of electrons in a circuit. All batteries are made up
of three basic components: an anode (the ‘+' side), a cathode (the ‘-'
side), and some kind of electrolyte (a substance that chemically reacts
with the anode and cathode).
Types:
1. Lead acid
2. Nickel cadmium
3. Nickel metal hydride
4. Lithium ion
5. Sodium sulfur
6. Redox flow
 Fuel cell technologies

The fuel cell technology is a clean technology with low chemical

pollution and is a chemical engineering way of producing energy
based on electrochemical energy conversion of chemical energy of
hydrogen and oxygen into electricity and heat which produces only
water as the by product.
Working of a Fuel Cell

A fuel cell typically consists of two electrodes, namely, an

anode and cathode separated by an electrolyte membrane. The
organic fuel that can be used in a fuel cell to produce electricity
includes hydrogen, methane, ethane, ethanol, etc. These fuels
underdo combustion and release energy in the form of heat. Most of
such reactions produce water and carbon-di-oxide as by-products
and are prominently redox reactions. Redox reactions involve the
transfer of electrons that leads to the conversion of chemical energy
into electrical energy.
An electrolyte material is present between the electrodes.
Fuel is supplied to both the electrodes individually. For instance, let
us say that in a fuel cell the hydrogen is fed to the anode, while air is
fed to the cathode. Here, the catalyst present at the anode side of the
cell tends to break the hydrogen molecules into smaller particles, i.e.,
protons and electrons. Both the elements try to move towards the
cathode following different paths.
 The electrons reach the cathode following an external path,
thereby producing the current, whereas the protons travel through
the electrolyte membrane and reach the cathode to combine with
oxygen molecules and electrons to produce water and heat as by-
products.

42
43
 Types of EVS
(i) BEV (Battery Electric Vehicle)
 EVs run on battery power without
an internal combustion engine’s
assistance, they can run much faster
on a single charge than hybrid
vehicles.
They’re also known as battery
electric vehicles, or BEVs. That’s what
distinguishes them from hybrids that
run on battery power with assistance
from internal combustion engines
(ii) HEV (Hybrid Electric Vehicle)

 HEVs run on both an internal

combustion engine and an electric
motor that uses energy stored in a
battery. Unlike most electric vehicles,
however, HEV drivers charge their
batteries via regenerative braking.
 Regenerative braking stores the
kinetic energy used to stop the car to
charge its battery and help the internal
combustion engine accelerate the
vehicle.
  PHEVs expand on the concept of the
(iii) PHEV (Plug in Hybrid
Electric Vehicle) standard hybrid vehicle. They have both
an internal combustion engine and a
battery-powered electric motor. This
allows the battery to store enough power
to feed the electric motor and in turn
decrease your gas usage by as much as
60 percent.
This can save you time and money at
the gas pump. PHEVs can travel up to 40
miles on electric power alone, rather
than a couple of miles with a standard
hybrid vehicle.
 EV Charging station
 EV charging points are primarily defined by the power (in kW) they can
produce and therefore what speed they are capable of charging an EV. While
connector types are also a key issue, most EVs are equipped with two or
more cables to allow the use of chargers with different connector outlets.
CHARGE POINT TYPES 4 categories:
(i) Slow charging (up to 3kW)  The Process
 Time
(ii) Fast charging (7-22kW)
 Price
(iii) Rapid chargers (43-50kW)  EVs are better for the environment

‘Charge de Move’ Combined DC Fast Charging

Only Tesla
Nissan, Toyota, Charging
System (all EVs all EVs except Tesla
and Mitsubishi
except Tesla)