Intorudction To Brain and Behaviour Chapter 14

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How Do We Learn and Remember?
Chapter 14
Psychology in TO
INTRODUCTION Everyday Life BEHAVIOR
BRAIN AND BRYAN KOLB David
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
DeWall– SEVENTH EDITION
| Sixth Edition
Copyright © 2022 by Macmillan Learning. All Rights Reserved
• Brain plasticity
• Two categories of memory
• Encoding and processing memories
• Dissociating memory circuits
• Neural circuits for explicit memories
• Consolidation of explicit memories
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
The Brain Is Plastic
• Experiences that change the brain

• Development
• Culture
• Preferences
• Coping
• Learning is common to these experiences.
• Neuroplasticity
• The nervous system’s potential for physical or
chemical change, enhances its adaptability
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Connecting Learning and Memory
• Learning
• Change in an organism’s behavior as a result of
experience
• Memory
• Ability to recall or recognize previous experience
• Engram (memory trace)

• A mental representation of a previous experience
• Corresponds to a physical change in the brain, most
likely involving synapses
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Studying Learning and Memory in the
Laboratory
• Pavlovian conditioning
• Learning procedure
whereby a neutral
stimulus such as a tone
comes to elicit a
response because of its
repeated pairing with
some event such as the
delivery of food; also
called classical
conditioning or
respondent conditioning
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Pavlovian Conditioning
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) • Unconditioned response

• In Pavlovian conditioning, (UCR)
an originally neutral • In classical conditioning,
stimulus that triggers a the unlearned, naturally
conditioned response (CR) occurring response to the
after association with an unconditioned stimulus,
unconditioned stimulus such as salivation when
• Unconditioned stimulus food is in the mouth
(UCS) • Conditioned response
• A stimulus that (CR)
unconditionally—naturally • In Pavlovian conditioning,
and automatically—triggers the learned response to a
an unconditioned response formerly neutral
CS + UCS  UCR; after severalconditioned
(UCR) pairings: stimulusCS  CR
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Eyeblink Conditioning
Fear conditioning
• Unpleasant but harmless
stimulus is used to elicit an
emotional response: fear.
Eyeblink Conditioning
• A tone (CS) is associated with
a painless puff of air (UCS) to
the participant’s eye.
• Blinking is a normal reaction
(UCR) to a puff of air.
• Learning has occurred when
blinking is a response to the
CS alone (CR).
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Operant Conditioning (Instrumental
Conditioning)
• Learning procedure in
which the consequences
(such as obtaining a
reward) of a particular
behavior (such as pressing
a bar) increase or decrease
the probability of the
behavior occurring again
(Edward Thorndike, 1898)
• Operant learning is not

localized to any particular
brain circuit.
• Necessary circuits vary with
the task requirements.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Two Categories of Memory (part 1)
• Explicit memory
• Conscious memory
• Subjects can retrieve an item and indicate that they know they
retrieved the correct item.
• Implicit memory
• Unconscious memory
• Subjects demonstrate knowledge, such as a skill, conditioned
response, or recalling events on prompting, but cannot explicitly
retrieve the information.
• Priming
• Using a stimulus to sensitize the nervous system to a
later presentation of the same or a similar stimulus;
unconscious learning
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Gollin Figure Test
• On a retention test, participants identify the image sooner,

indicating some form of memory for the image.
• Amnesic subjects also show improvement on this test, even though
they do not recall having taken it.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Pursuit-Rotor Task
• People with amnesia, a
partial or total loss of
memory, perform implicit
memory tests at normal.
• Presented with the same
task a week later, both
controls and amnesics
take less time to perform.
• Amnesics fail to recall
having performed the
task before.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Two Categories of Memory (part 2)
• Declarative memory
• Ability to recount what one knows, to detail the time,
place, and circumstances of events; often lost in
amnesia
• Procedural memory
• Ability to recall a movement sequence or how to
perform some act or behavior
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Differentiating Two Terms that describe
conscious memory
Terms that describe
unconscious
memory
Memory Categories Explicit Implicit
Declarative Nondeclarative
• Commonly used Fact Skill
dichotomies Memory Habit

Knowing that Knowing how
Locale Taxon
• One memory category Conscious Skills
necessitates recalling recollection
specific information. Elaboration Integration

Memory with record Memory without
record
• The other refers to Autobiographical Perceptual
knowledge of which we Representational Dispositional
are not consciously aware. Semantic Nonassociative

Working Reference
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Encoding and Processing Memories
(part 1)
• The brain processes explicit and implicit
information differently.
• Implicit information is processed in a bottom-up

or data-driven manner.
• Information is encoded in the same way it was perceived.
• Explicit information is processed in a top-down

or conceptually driven manner.
• The subject reorganizes the information before it is encoded.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Encoding and Processing Memories
(part 3)
• Short-term memory (few minutes)
• Information is held in memory only briefly, then
discarded; involves the frontal lobes.
• Long-term memory (indefinite duration)

• Information is held in memory indefinitely, perhaps for
a lifetime; involves the temporal lobe.
• No single place in the nervous system can be

identified as the location of memory or learning.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Multiple Memory Systems
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Storing Memories (part 1)
• Information from different sensory modalities
(e.g., vision, audition) is processed and stored in
other neural areas.
• Jeffrey Binder and colleagues (2009)

• Performed a meta-analysis of 120 functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) semantic memory studies
• Found a distinct network comprising seven different
left-hemisphere regions, including regions of the
parietal lobe, temporal lobe, prefrontal cortex, and
posterior cingulate cortex.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Storing Memories (part 2)
• Not all regions are active at once when a
semantic memory is stored
• Subregions relatively specialized for specific object
characteristics or types of knowledge
• Extensive network is similar to default network

that is active when participants are resting rather
than engaged in specific cognitive tasks.
• Semantic processing constitutes large component of
cognitive activity during passive states.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Semantic Memory System
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
What Is Special about Personal
Memories? (part 1)
• Autobiographical memory
• Episodic memory for events pegged to specific place and time
contexts
• How and where autobiographical memories are stored in the

brain
• Key regions: Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and
hippocampus, and the pathways between them (Heidi Bonnici and
Eleanor Maguire, 2012)
• Discriminability in the hippocampus: Similar for old and new memories
• Discriminability in the prefrontal cortex: Much poorer for new memories
• There was a change in the engram in the prefrontal cortex

over the two years, but the hippocampus remained stable.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Loss of Personal Memory
• K. C. suffered severe traumatic brain injury that produced
multiple cortical lesions (Endel Tulving, 2002)
• Cognitive abilities and short-term memory were intact.
• Episodic autobiographical amnesia covering his entire life from
birth was damaged.
• Hippocampal injury is also associated with poor episodic

memory (Cornelia McCormick and colleagues, 2018)
• Reduced hippocampal activity occurred during episodic memory.
• Retrieval was associated with impaired episodic memory.
• Increased vmPFC activity during memory retrieval was found as
a result of partial compensation for the hippocampal dysfunction.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Superior Autobiographical Memory
• Highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM)
• People display virtually complete recall for events in their lives,
usually beginning around age 10.
• Many can describe any episode, including the day of the week and
the date.
• Individuals with HSAM (Lawrence Patihis and colleagues,

2013)
• Areas likely as other participants to develop false memories
• Show superior personal memories but not superior cognitive
functioning
• HSAM appears to require an experience that is part of the

individual’s personal narrative
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Dissociating Memory Circuits
• Karl Lashley searched unsuccessfully for the
neural circuits underlying memories.
• Severity of memory disturbance related to size, not
location, of injury
• William Scoville performed a bilateral medial
temporal lobe resection on a young man, Henry
Molaison (H. M.).
• Seizures originated in the region of the amygdala,
hippocampal formation, and associated subcortical
structures, so Scoville removed them bilaterally.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Extent of H. M.’s Surgery
• H. M.’s right-hemisphere
lesion is highlighted in the
brain viewed ventrally.
• The lesion runs along the

wall of the medial temporal
lobe.
• The left side of the brain has

been left intact to show the
relative location of the medial
temporal structures. Parts A,
B, and C, based on MRI
scans, depict a series of
coronal sections of
H. M.’s brain.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Disrupting Explicit Memory
• After the surgery, H. M. had severe amnesia,

lacking explicit memory.
• He could not recall anything that happened after the
surgery.
• Despite this deficit, H. M. had an above-average
IQ, performed well on perceptual tests, and
could recall events from his childhood.
• H. M.’s performance on implicit memory tests
was left intact.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Disrupting Implicit Memory
• Patient J. K.
• Impaired implicit memory with intact explicit memory
• Developed Parkinson disease in his mid-70s and started to
have memory problems at 78
• Damage to basal ganglia
• Impaired ability to perform tasks that he had done all his life
• Example: turning off the radio
• Could still recall explicit events
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Neural Circuit for Explicit Memories
(part 1)
• Primary structures for explicit memory
• Medial temporal region
• Hippocampus
• Amygdala
• Entorhinal cortex
• Parahippocampal cortex
• Perirhinal cortex
• Prefrontal cortex
• Other closely related structures
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Medial Temporal Structures
Participating in Memory in Monkeys
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
The Hippocampus and Spatial Memory
(part 1)
• Visuospatial memory
• Using visual information to identify an object’s location
in space
• Laboratory animals and human patients with selective
hippocampal injury have severe deficits in various
forms of spatial memory.
• Monkeys with hippocampal lesions have difficulty
learning the location of objects.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
The Hippocampus and Spatial Memory
(part 2)
• Animals (including humans) with especially good spatial
memory should have bigger hippocampi than species
with poorer spatial memories.
• Monkeys with hippocampal lesions have difficulty learning the
locations of objects.
• Visual–recognition task; object-position task
• The hippocampal formation in food-storing birds and rodents is

larger than that of birds who are not food cachers. And rodents
that do not store food.
• Posterior region of the hippocampus in London taxi drivers is

significantly larger than the same region in the control
participants.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Two Memory Tasks for Monkeys
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Inferring Spatial Memory
• This graph relates

hippocampal volume to
forebrain volume in food-
storing (left) and non-food-
storing (right) families of
songbirds.
• Birds that cache food, such as

the black-capped chickadee,
have hippocampi about twice
as large as birds that are not
cachers, such as the sparrow.
Data from Sherry et al.
(1992).
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Spatial Cells in the Hippocampal
Formation
• Three classes of spatial cells in the rat and
mouse hippocampus medial and entorhinal
cortex have been identified.
• Place cells discharge when rats are in a spatial
location, regardless of orientation.
• Head direction cells discharge whenever a rat’s head
points in a particular direction.
• Grid cells discharge at many locations, forming a
virtual grid invariant to changes in the rat’s direction,
movement, or speed.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Classes of Spatially Related Cells in the
Hippocampal Formation
• Place cells and head
direction cells are
found in hippocampus
and are closely
related structures.
• Grid cells are found in
the entorhinal cortex,
a major afferent route
into the hippocampus.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Reciprocal Connections for Explicit
Memory
• Neocortex projects to the entorhinal cortex, which
projects back to the neocortex.
• Signals from the medial temporal regions to the cortical
sensory regions keep the sensory experience alive in
the brain: the neural record outlasts the experience.
• Pathway back to the neocortex means it is kept

apprised of the information processed in medial
temporal regions.
• Frontal lobe’s role in explicit memory is subtler

than that of the medial temporal lobe.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
The Frontal Lobe and Short-Term
Memory
• The frontal lobe appears to participate in many
forms of short-term memory.
• All sensory systems project to the frontal lobes.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Korsakoff Syndrome
• Tracing the explicit memory circuit

• Permanent loss of the ability to learn new information
(anterograde amnesia) and to retrieve old information
(retrograde amnesia)
• Caused by diencephalic damage from chronic alcoholism or
malnutrition that produces a vitamin B1 deficiency
• Memory disturbance is probably severe because the
damage includes the forebrain and brainstem structures.
• Mortimer Mishkin and his colleagues

• Neural circuit for explicit memory incorporates evidence
from both humans and laboratory animals with injuries to the
temporal and frontal lobes.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Reciprocal Neural Circuit Proposed
for Explicit Memory (part 1)
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Reciprocal Neural Circuit Proposed
for Explicit Memory (part 2)
• Sensory and motor neocortical areas connect to the
medial temporal regions.
• Basal forebrain structures play a role in maintaining

appropriate activity levels in other forebrain structures to
process information.
• The temporal lobe is hypothesized to be central to long-

term explicit memory formation.
• The prefrontal cortex is central to maintaining temporary

(short term) explicit memories and memory for the recency
(chronological order) of explicit events.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Consolidation of Explicit Memories (part
1)
• Hippocampus consolidates • When memory is replayed
in mind, it is open to further
new memories.
consolidation
(reconsolidation).
• In consolidation, or
stabilizing a memory trace • New information is
after learning, memories constantly being integrated
move from hippocampus to into existing memory
diffuse regions in the networks.
neocortex.
• It is possible to erase
negative memories using
• Once memories move,
amnesic agents when the
hippocampal involvement is memory is revisited (e.g., in
no longer needed. PTSD).
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Neural Circuit for Implicit Memories
(part 1)
• Mishkin and
colleagues (1982,
1997)
• Proposed circuit for
implicit memory
• Basal ganglia
• Ventral thalamus
• Substantia nigra
• Premotor cortex
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Neural Circuit for Implicit Memories
(part 3)
• Unconscious nature of implicit memory
• Mishkin believes that implicit memories are
unconscious because the connections between the
basal ganglia and cortex are unidirectional.
• Basal ganglia receive information from the cortex but do not
project back to the cortex.
• For memories to be conscious, there must be feedback to
the cortex.
• The medial temporal lobe projects back to the cortex, so explicit
memories are conscious.
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Neural Circuit for Emotional Memory
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition
Next Class
• Chapter 14 part 2
• Reminder: Midterm 2 now open, closes March

15!
Psychology in TO
| IAN Q. G.
WHISHAW
Myers| G. CAMPBELL
• C. NathanTESKEY
| Sixth Edition

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• Experiences that change the brain

• Learning is common to these experiences.

• Engram (memory trace)

• Conditioned stimulus (CS) • Unconditioned response

• Operant learning is not

• On a retention test, participants identify the image sooner,

dichotomies Memory Habit

specific information. Elaboration Integration

knowledge of which we Representational Dispositional

are not consciously aware. Semantic Nonassociative

• Implicit information is processed in a bottom-up

• Explicit information is processed in a top-down

• Long-term memory (indefinite duration)

• No single place in the nervous system can be

• Jeffrey Binder and colleagues (2009)

• Extensive network is similar to default network

• How and where autobiographical memories are stored in the

• There was a change in the engram in the prefrontal cortex

• Hippocampal injury is also associated with poor episodic

• Individuals with HSAM (Lawrence Patihis and colleagues,

• HSAM appears to require an experience that is part of the

• The lesion runs along the

• The left side of the brain has

• After the surgery, H. M. had severe amnesia,

• The hippocampal formation in food-storing birds and rodents is

• Posterior region of the hippocampus in London taxi drivers is

• This graph relates

• Birds that cache food, such as

• Pathway back to the neocortex means it is kept

• Frontal lobe’s role in explicit memory is subtler

• All sensory systems project to the frontal lobes.

• Tracing the explicit memory circuit

• Mortimer Mishkin and his colleagues

• Basal forebrain structures play a role in maintaining

• The temporal lobe is hypothesized to be central to long-

• The prefrontal cortex is central to maintaining temporary

• Reminder: Midterm 2 now open, closes March

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