Week 5 Logical Fallacies 2

FAKULTI BAHASA DAN LINGUISTIK
GBT 0002 : CRITICAL

THINKING AND PROBLEM
SOLVING SKILLS
PN SITI ROHANA BINTI MOHD
THANI
srohana@um.edu.my
603-7967 3116
WEEK 5
DETECTING FALLACIES 2
Copyright Universiti Malaya ©

Logical Fallacies
2
Continuing our foray into the world
3 of Argument
Siti Rohana Binti Mohd Thani
Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

Courtesy of: http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/fallacies.html
4 What is Fallacy?
 Refresh & continue from Part 1
 are defects that weaken arguments.
 First, fallacious arguments are very, very common and can be

quite persuasive, at least to the causal reader or listener. You
can find dozens of examples of fallacious reasoning in
newspapers, advertisements, and other sources.
 Second, it is sometimes hard to evaluate whether an

argument is fallacious.
 An argument might be very weak, somewhat weak, somewhat

strong, or very strong. An argument that has several stages or
parts
Siti Rohana might have some strong sections and some weak ones.
Mohd Thani
Fallacies
5
1. Hasty Generalization
2. Missing the Point
3. Post Hoc (False Cause)
4. Slippery Slope
5. Weak Analogy
6. Appeal to Authority
7. Appeal to Ignorance
8. False Dichotomy (Alternative)
9. Loaded Question
10. Inconsistency

6 1.Hasty Generalization
 Definition: Making assumptions about a whole group or
range of cases based on a sample that is inadequate
(usually because it is atypical or just too small).
 Stereotypes about people ("frat boys are drunkards,"
"grad students are nerdy," etc.) are a common example
of the principle underlying hasty generalization.
 Example: "My roommate said her philosophy class was

hard, and the one I'm in is hard, too. All philosophy
classes must be hard!"
 Two people's experiences are, in this case, not enough
on which to base a conclusion.

7 2. Missing the Point
 Definition: The premises of an argument do support a

particular conclusion--but not the conclusion that the arguer
actually draws.
 Example: "The seriousness of a punishment should match

the seriousness of the crime. Right now, the punishment for
drunk driving may simply be a fine. But drunk driving is a
very serious crime that can kill innocent people. So the death
penalty should be the punishment for drunk driving."
 The argument actually supports several conclusions--
"The punishment for drunk driving should be very
serious," in particular--but it doesn't support the claim that
the death penalty, specifically, is warranted.

8 3.Post hoc (false cause)
This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase "post hoc, ergo
propter hoc," which translates as "after this, therefore because of
this."
 Definition: Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B.
 Of course, sometimes one event really does cause another
one that comes later--for example, if I register for a class, and
my name later appears on the roll, it's true that the first event
caused the one that came later. But sometimes two events
that seem related in time aren't really related as cause and
event. That is, correlation isn't the same thing as causation.
 Examples: "President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of
violent crime went up. Jones is responsible for the rise in crime.“
 The increase in taxes might or might not be one factor in the
rising crime rates, but the argument hasn't shown us that one
caused the other.
Also known as
“the Camel’s Nose
9 4. Slippery Slope
 Definition: The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually
ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but there's really
not enough evidence for that assumption.
 The arguer asserts that if we take even one step onto the
"slippery slope," we will end up sliding all the way to the bottom;
he or she assumes we can't stop halfway down the hill.
 Example: "Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. If

we don't respect life, we are likely to be more and more tolerant of
violent acts like war and murder. Soon our society will become a
battlefield in which everyone constantly fears for their lives. It will be
the end of civilization. To prevent this terrible consequence, we
should make animal experimentation illegal right now."
 Since animal experimentation has been legal for some time and
civilization has not yet ended, it seems particularly clear that this
chain of events won't necessarily take place.
5.Weak Analogy
10
 Definition: Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or
more objects, ideas, or situations. If the two things that are being
compared aren't really alike in the relevant respects, the analogy is
a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of
weak analogy.
 Example: "Guns are like hammers--they're both tools with metal
parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it would be
ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers--so restrictions on
purchasing guns are equally ridiculous."
 Eg: Lettuce is leafy and green and tastes great with a veggie burger.
Poison ivy is also green. Therefore, poison ivy probably tastes great
with a veggie burger, too.

6.Appeal to Authority
11
 Definition: Often we add strength to our arguments by
referring to respected sources or authorities and
explaining their positions on the issues we're discussing.
 If, however, we try to get readers to agree with us simply by
impressing them with a famous name or by appealing to a
supposed authority who really isn't much of an expert, we
commit the fallacy of appeal to authority.
 Example: "We should abolish the death penalty. Many

respected people, such as actor Guy Handsome, have
publicly stated their opposition to it."
 While Guy Handsome may be an authority on matters having to
do with acting, there's no particular reason why anyone should be
moved by his political opinions--he is probably no more of an
authority on the death penalty than the person writing the paper.
7. Appeal to Ignorance
12
 Definition: In the appeal to ignorance, the arguer basically says,
"Look, there's no conclusive evidence on the issue at hand.
Therefore, you should accept my conclusion on this issue."
 Example: "People have been trying for centuries to prove that
UFO exists. But no one has yet been able to prove it. Therefore,
UFO does not exist."
Here's an opposing argument that commits the same fallacy:
 In each case, the arguer tries to use the lack of evidence as
support for a positive claim about the truth of a conclusion.
There is one situation in which doing this is not fallacious: If
qualified researchers have used well-thought-out methods to
search for something for a long time, they haven't found it, and
it's the kind of thing people ought to be able to find, then the
fact that they haven't found it constitutes some evidence that it
doesn't exist.
8.False Dichotomy (Alternative)
13
 Definition: In false dichotomy, the arguer sets up the situation
so it looks like there are only two choices. The arguer then
eliminates one of the choices, so it seems that we are left with
only one option: the one the arguer wanted us to pick in the first
place.
 Example: "Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it down
and put up a new building, or we continue to risk students'
safety. Obviously we shouldn't risk anyone's safety, so we must
tear the building down."
 The argument neglects to mention the possibility that we
might repair the building or find some way to protect
students from the risks in question--for example, if only a
few rooms are in bad shape, perhaps we shouldn't hold classes
in those rooms.
14 9.Loaded Question
This fallacy occurs when an arguer asks a question

that contains an unfair or unwarranted presupposition.
Like eg below either answers (yes or no) will force the
person to admit something that he/she doesn’t want to
admit.
Eg: Joe: Have you stopped cheating on exams?

Pete: No!
Joe: Oh,so you admit that you still cheat on exams?
Pete: No, I meant to say yes!
Joe: Oh, so you admit that you used to cheat on exams?
Pete; No!

15 10. Inconsistency
Two statements are inconsistent when they both

can’t be true. It occurs when an arguer asserts
inconsistent or contradictory claims.
Eg:
A: Preferential treatment is unfair and discriminatory. It has no
place in college admissions.
B: But didn’t you say a minute ago that you got into this college
only because your father was a rich alumnus?
A: Well, yeah. But what’swrong with that?
B: Just checking, man.

16 Can you name this Fallacy?
1) It is ridiculous to have spent thousands

of dollars to rescue those two whales
trapped in the Arctic ice. Why look at all the
people trapped in jobs they don’t like.

1) It is ridiculous to have spent thousands

of dollars to rescue those two whales
trapped in the Arctic ice. Why look at all
the people trapped in jobs they don’t
like.
RED HERRING
2.Plagiarism is deceitful because it is

dishonest.

2 ) Plagiarism is deceitful because it is

dishonest.
BEGGING THE QUESTION

3.Water fluoridation affects the brain.

Citywide,student’s test scores began
to drop five months after fluoridation
began.

3) Water fluoridation affects the brain.

Citywide, student’s test scores began
to drop five months after fluoridation
began.
POST HOC (false cause)

4) I know three redheads who have

terrible tempers, and since Annabel
has red hair, I’ll bet she has a terrible
temper too.

4) I know three redheads who have

terrible tempers, and since Annabel
has red hair, I’ll bet she has a terrible
temper too.
HASTY GENERALIZATION
5) Supreme Court Justice Byron White

was an All-American football player
while in college, so how can you say
that athletes are dumb?

5) Supreme Court Justice Byron White

was an All-American football player
while in college, so how can you say
that athletes are dumb?

6) Why should we put people on trial

when we know they are guilty?

6) Why should we put people on trial

when we know they are guilty?
BEGGING THE QUESTION

28 Can you name this Fallacy
7) You support capital punishment just

because you want an “eye for an eye,”
but I have several good reasons to
believe that capital punishment is
fundamentally wrong…

7) You support capital punishment just

because you want an “eye for an eye,”
but I have several good reasons to
believe that capital punishment is
fundamentally wrong…
STRAW MAN

8) The meteorologist predicted the

wrong amount of rain for May.
Obviously the meteorologist is
unreliable.

8) The meteorologist predicted the

wrong amount of rain for May.
Obviously the meteorologist is
unreliable.
32
Can you name this Fallacy?
9) You know Jane Fonda’s exercise

video’s must be worth the money. Look
at the great shape she’s in.

9) You know Jane Fonda’s exercise

video’s must be worth the money.
Look at the great shape she’s in.
POST HOC (false cause)

10) We have to stop the tuition

increase! The next thing you know,
they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!

10) We have to stop the tuition

increase! The next thing you know,
they'll be charging $40,000 a
semester!
SLIPPERY SLOPE
11) The book Investing for Dummies really

helped me understand my finances better.
The book Chess for Dummies was written
by the same author, was published by the
same press, and costs about the same
amount, so it would probably help me
understand my finances as well.

11) The book Investing for Dummies really
helped me understand my finances better.
The book Chess for Dummies was written
by the same author, was published by the
same press, and costs about the same
amount, so it would probably help me
understand my finances as well.
WEAK ANALOGY

12) Look, you are going to have to make up

your mind. Either you decide that you can
afford this stereo, or you decide you are
going to do without music for a while.

12) Look, you are going to have to make

up your mind. Either you decide that you
can afford this stereo, or you decide you
are going to do without music for a while.
FALSE DICHOTOMY (Alternative)

13) I'm positive that my work will meet

your requirements. I really need the job
since my grandmother is sick.

13) I'm positive that my work will meet

your requirements. I really need the job
since my grandmother is sick.
APPEAL TO PITY

14) Crimes of theft and robbery have

been increasing at an alarming rate
lately. The conclusion is obvious, we
must reinstate the death penalty
immediately

14) Crimes of theft and robbery have

been increasing at an alarming rate
lately. The conclusion is obvious, we
must reinstate the death penalty
immediately.
MISSING THE POINT

15) I'm not a doctor, but I play one on the hit

series "Bimbos and Studmuffins in the OR."
You can take it from me that when you
need a fast acting, effective and safe pain
killer there is nothing better than
MorphiDope 2000. That is my considered
medical opinion.

15) I'm not a doctor, but I play one on the hit
series "Bimbos and Studmuffins in the
OR." You can take it from me that when
you need a fast acting, effective and safe
pain killer there is nothing better than
MorphiDope 2000. That is my considered
medical opinion.
APPEAL TO AUTHORITY

46
Any Question?
Thank you

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FAKULTI BAHASA DAN LINGUISTIK

GBT 0002 : CRITICAL

Copyright Universiti Malaya ©

Siti Rohana Binti Mohd Thani

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

 are defects that weaken arguments.

 First, fallacious arguments are very, very common and can be

 Second, it is sometimes hard to evaluate whether an

 An argument might be very weak, somewhat weak, somewhat

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

 Example: "My roommate said her philosophy class was

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

 Definition: The premises of an argument do support a

 Example: "The seriousness of a punishment should match

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

 Example: "Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. If

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

 Example: "We should abolish the death penalty. Many

This fallacy occurs when an arguer asks a question

Eg: Joe: Have you stopped cheating on exams?

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

Two statements are inconsistent when they both

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

1) It is ridiculous to have spent thousands

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

1) It is ridiculous to have spent thousands

2.Plagiarism is deceitful because it is

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

2 ) Plagiarism is deceitful because it is

BEGGING THE QUESTION

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

3.Water fluoridation affects the brain.

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

3) Water fluoridation affects the brain.

POST HOC (false cause)

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

4) I know three redheads who have

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

4) I know three redheads who have

5) Supreme Court Justice Byron White

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

5) Supreme Court Justice Byron White

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

6) Why should we put people on trial

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

6) Why should we put people on trial

BEGGING THE QUESTION

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

7) You support capital punishment just

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

7) You support capital punishment just

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

8) The meteorologist predicted the

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

8) The meteorologist predicted the

9) You know Jane Fonda’s exercise

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani

9) You know Jane Fonda’s exercise

POST HOC (false cause)

Siti Rohana Mohd Thani