TOPIC 2 ; THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system includes

bones,
joints,
cartilages and
ligaments.
The joint give the body flexibility and allow movements to occur. But from
structural point of view, the human skeletal system consists of two main types of
supportive connective tissue, bone and cartilage.
Functions of the skeletal system:
1, Support: it forms the internal framework that supports and anchors all soft
organs.
2. Protection: bones protect soft body organs.
3. Movement: skeletal muscles attached to the skeletal system use the bone to
levers to move the body and its part.
4. Storage: fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones. Bone it
self-serves as a storehouse of minerals. The most important being calcium and
phosphors.
5. Blood cell formation: it occurs with in the marrow cavities of certain bones.
 5.1 Bone
• Bone (osseous) is specialized connective tissue that has the strength of cast iron and
lightness of pinewood.
• Living bone isnot dry, brittle or dead. It is a moist changing, productive tissue that is
continually resorbed, reformed and remodeled.
• 5.1.1 Types of bone
1. Long bone, are called long as its length is greater than its width. The most obvious long
bones are in the arm and leg. They act as levers that pulled by contraction of muscles.
2. Short bones are about equal in length, width and thickness, which are shaped with
regular orientation. They occur in the wrist and ankle.
3. Flat bones are thin or curved more often they are flat. This includes ribs, scapulae,
sternum and bone of cranium. .
4. Irregular bones, they do not fit neatly into any other category. E.G are the vertebral,
facial, and hipbone.
5. Sesamoid bones are small bones embedded with in certain tendons, the fibrous cord
that connects muscle to bones. Typical sesamoid bones are patella and pisiform carpal
bone, which are in the tendon of quadriceps femuris and flexor carp ulnar is muscle
respectively.
6. Accessory bones are most commonly found in the feet. They usually occur in the
developing bone and do not fuse completely. They look like extra bones or broken on X-
ray. Sutural (wormian) bones are examples of accessory bones.
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 Type Bone

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 Bone Structure

• 1. Gross Anatomy ( surface features)

– Bone markings are projections, depressions, and
openings found on the surface of bones that function
as sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment, as
joint surfaces, and as openings for the passage of blood
vessels and nerves.
• 2. Bone Textures: (classification on texture)
– Compact bone: All bone has a dense outer layer that
appears smooth and solid.
– Spongy bone: Internal to compact bone , which consists
of honeycomb, needle-like, or flat pieces, called
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trabeculae. by lali.t 4
 Gross anatomy of a typical long bone
You can take Tibia (in the leg) one of the longest bones in the body.In adults it have:
1. Diaphis, the tubular shaft, hallow cylindrical with walls of compact bone tissue.
The center of the cylinder is the medullary cavity, which is filled with marrow.
2. Epiphysis is roughly spherical end of the bone. It is wider than the shaft. Flat and
irregular bones of the trunk and limbs have many epiphysis and the long bones
of the finger and toe have only one epiphysis.
3. Metaphysis is the part separating diaphysis from epiphysis. It is made up of
epiphyseal plate and adjacent bony trabeculae of cancellous bone tissue.
4. Epiphyseal plate is a thick plate of hyaline cartilage, which provides the
framework of synthesis of the cancellous bone tissue within metaphysis.
• The medullary cavity running through the length of the diaphysis contains Yellow
marrow.
• The porous latticework of the spongy epiphyses is filled with red bone marrow. The
red marrow also known as myeloid tissue Endosteum is the lining the medullary
cavity of compact bone tissue and covering the trabeculae of spongy bone tissue.
Periosteum: it is covering the outer surface of the bone. It is absent at joints and
replaced by articular cartilage.

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 Figure of anatomy & physiology of bone

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 Bone Cells
• Bone contain five types of cells
1. Osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells: these are small spindle shaped cell.
They found mostly in the deepest layer of periosteum and endosteum. They
have high mitotic potential and can be transformed into bone forming cells
(osteoblasts).
2. Osteoblasts are found in the growing portion of bone including periosteum.
They are able to synthesize and secrete un-mineralized ground substance,
act as pump cell to move calcium and phosphate in and out of bone tissue.
3. Osteocytes are the main cell of fully developed bones. They have a cell
body that occupies a lacuna. Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts. They
together with osteoclasts play an important role of homeostasis by helping
to release calcium.
4. Osteoclasts are multinuclear giant cell, which are found where bone is
resorbed during its normal growth.
• Osteoclasts are derived from white blood cells called monocytes.
• e) Bone - lining cells are found on the surface of most bones in the adult
skeleton. They are believed to be derived from osteoblast that ceases their
physiological activity.
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 5.1.5 Developmental Anatomy and Growth of Bones

Bones develop through a process known as Ossification.

Bone in embryo(at 6-7weeks) develops in two ways:
1. Intra-membranous ossification, If bone develops
directly from mesenchymal tissue. Examples are vault
of the skull, flat bones and part of the clavicle. In this
type of ossification development continues rapidly
from the center.
2.Endochondrial Ossification, When bone tissue
develops by replacing hyaline cartilage. The cartilage it
self do not converted into bone but the cartilage is
replaced by bone through the process. Endochondrial
ossification produces long bones and all other bones
not formed by intra-membranous ossification.
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 5.1.3 Bone (Osseous) Tissue
• Bone tissue is composed of cells embedded in a matrix of ground substances and fibers.
• It is more rigid than other tissues because it contains inorganic salts mainly calcium
phosphate & calcium carbonate.
• Most bones have an outer sheet of compact bone tissue enclosing an interior spongy
bone tissue.
1. Compact bone tissue forms the outer sheet of a bone.
 It is very hard and dense.
 It appears to naked eye to be solid but not.
 Compact bone tissue contains cylinders of calcified bone known as osteons (Haversion
system).
 Osteons are made up of concentric layers called lamellae, which are arranged seemingly
in wider and wider drinking straws.
 In the center of the osteons are central canals (haversion canal) , which are longitudinal
canals that contains blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels.
 Central canals, usually have the system of nerves and vessels out ward to periosteum and
to endosteum.
2. Spongy (cancellous) Bone tissue- interior part to the compact bone
Is in the form of an open interlaced pattern that withstands maximum stress and supports in
shifting stress.
Trabeculae
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by lali.t by bone matrix that has calcified. 9
 5.2 The Skeleton
• General futures and surface markings
• Looking to the bone reveals the surface is not smooth but scarred with bumps,
holes and ridges. These are surface markings where muscles, tendons and
ligaments attached, blood & lymph vessels and nerves pass.
 Depression and openings
• Fissure; narrow, cleft like opening between adjacent parts of bone. Example:
Supra of orbital fissure.
• Foramen; a bigger, round opening. Example: Foramen magnum.
• Meatus: a relatively narrow tubular canal. Example: External auditory meatus
• Groves and sulcus: are deep furrow on the surface of a bone or other structure.
• Example: Inter-vertebral and radial groves of humers.
• Fossa: shallow depressed area. Example: Mandibular fossa.
 Processes that form joints
• Condyle / knuckle like process/ concave or convex. Example Medial condyle of
femur
• Head, expanded, rounded surface at proximal end of a bone often joined to shaft
by a narrowed neck. Example: Head of femur
• Facet: small, flat surface. Example: Articular facet of ribs.
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• Process to which tendons, ligaments and other Connective
tissue attach
• Tubercle: it is a knob like process. Example: Greater tubercle
of humerus.
• Tuberosity: it is large, round roughened process.
Example:ischeal tuberosity.
• Trochanter: it is a large, blunt projection found only on femur
• Crest is a prominent ridge. Example: Iliac crest.
• Line: it is a less prominent ridge than a crest.
• Spinous process (spine) is a sharp, slender process. Example
Ischeal spin
• Epicondyle is a prominence above condyle. Example medial
Epicondyle of Femur
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 5.2.2 Division of the skeletal system
• The Adult human skeletons have 206 named bones
that are grouped in to two principal parts. These are:-
 the axial and
 appendicular skeleton.
• The Axial skeleton consist bones that lie around the
axis. Include the bones of the head (cranium), neck
(cervical vertebrae), and trunk (ribs, sternum,
vertebrae, and sacrum). And
• the appendicular skeleton consist bones of the body
out of the axial group. These are appendages. Upper
& lower extremities and bones of girdles are grouped
under appendicular skeleton.
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 1. AXIAL SKELETON
 Skull (22 bones)*  Ossicles of ear 6
 Cranium 8  Malleus (hammer) (2)
 Parietal (2)  Incus(anvil)(2)
 Temporal (2)  Stapes (stirrup) (2)
 Frontal (1)  Hyoid 1
 Ethmoid (1)  Vertebral column (26 bones)
 Sphenoid (1)  Cervical vertebrae 7
 Occipital (1)  Thoracic vertebrae 12
 Face 14  Lumbar vertebrae 5
 Maxillary (2)  Sacrum (5 fused bones) 1
 Zygomatic (molar) (2)  Coccyx (3- 5 fused bones) 1
 Lacrimal (2)  Thorax (25bones)
 Nasal (2) • Ribs 24
 Mandible (1) • sternum=1
 Vomer (1)
 inferior nasal conche(2)
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 2. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
1. Upper extremities (64) 2. Lower extremities (62)
 (shoulder) girdle 4  Pelvic girdle 2
 Clavicle (2)  Femur (2)
 Scapula (2)  Leg
 Arm 6  Patella (2)
 Humeorus (2)  Tibia (2)
 Ulna (2)  Fibula (2)
 Radius (2)  Foot
 Wrist 16  Tarsals (14)
Carpals (16)  Metatarsals (10)
 Hand and fingers 38  Phalanges (28)
 Metacarpals (10)  Total axial bones 80
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Phalanges (28)  Total Appendicular bones 126
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 5.2.3 The Axial skeleton
5.2.3.1 The skull
It Contain 22 bones. The skull rests on the superior of vertebral column.
It is composed of cranial and facial bones.
Description and function of Cranial Bones
1. Ethmoid (1): Base of cranium, anterior to body of sphenoid. Made up of horizontal, cribriform
plate, median perpendicular plate, paired lateral masses; contains ethmoidal sinuses, crista
galli, superior and middle conchae. Forms roof of nasal cavity andseptum, part of cranium
floor; site of attachment for membranes covering brain.
2. Frontal (1) Anterior and superior parts of cranium, forehead, brow areas.
Shaped like large scoop; frontal squama forms forehead;orbital plate forms roof of orbit;
supraorbital ridge forms brow ridge; contains frontal sinuses, supraorbital foramen.
Protectsfront of brain; contains passageway for nerves, blood vessels.
3. Occipital (1) Posterior part of cranium, including base.
Slightly curved plate,With turned- up edges; made up of squamous, base, and two lateral parts;
contains foramen magnum, occipital condyles,hypo-glossal canals, atlanto-occipital joint,
external occipital crest and protuberance.
Protects posterior part of brain; forms foramina for spinal cord and nerves; site of attachment
for muscles, ligaments.

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 The Axial skeleton……
4. Parietal (2) Superior sides and roof of cranium, between frontal and
occipital bones. Broad, slightly convex plates; smooth exteriors and
internal depressions. Protect top, sides of brain,passageway for
blood vessels.
5. Sphenoid (1) Base of cranium, anterior to occipital and temporal
bones. Wedge-shaped; made up of body, greater and lesser lateral
wings, pterygoid processes; contains sphenoidal sinuses, sella
turcica, optic foramen, superior orbital fissure, foramen ovale,
foramen rotundum, foramen spinosum Forms anterior part of base
of cranium; houses pituitary gland; contains foramina for cranial
nerves, meningeal artery to brain.
6. Temporal (2) Sides and base of cranium at temples. Made up of
squamous,petrous, tympanic, mastoid areas; contain zygomatic
process, mandibular fossa, ear Ossicles, mastoid sinuses. Form
temples, part of cheekbones; articulate with lower jaw; protect ear
ossicles; site of attachments for neck muscles.
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 The Axial skeleton………..
 Sutures
• Meaning to stitch, are immovable joint found between skull
bones. There are four main sutures in the skull.
1. Coronal suture: between the frontal & the two-parital bone.
2. Sagital suture: between the two parietal bones.
3. Lambdoidal suture: between parietal & occiputal bone.
4. Squamosal suture: between parietal bone and temporal bone.
 Fontanels
• The skeleton of a newly formed embryo consist cartilage or
fibrous membrane structures, which gradually replaced by
bone the process is called ossification. At birth membrane filled
spaces on the skull are called fontanel. They are found between
cranial bones.
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 The Axial skeleton……….
 Function
 They enable skull of the fetus to compress as it pass through the birth canal
 Permit rapid growth of brain during infancy
 Serves as a landmark (anterior fontanel) for withdrawal of blood from the superior
sagital sinus
 Aid in determination of fetal position prior to birth.
 In the skull of the fetus there are 6 prominent fontanels:
1. The Anterior (frontal) fontanel, between angle of two parietal bones & segment of
the frontal bone. It is diamond shaped and is the largest fontanel. It closes 18 to 24
months after birth.
2. The posterior (occiputal) fontanel, between parietal & occiputal bone. It is also
diamond shaped but smaller than the anterior fontanel. It closes 2 months after
birth.
3. The Antrolatral (sphenoidal) fontanel, they are pair, one in each side. Found at the
junction of frontal, parietal,temporal & sphenoidal bone. They are small & irregular
in shape and closes at 3rd month after birth.
4. The postrolateral (mastoid) fontanel, Paired one in each side. Found at the junction
of parietal, occiputal and temporal bones. They are irregular in shape and begin to
close at 1 or 2 months after birth and completed by 12 months.
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 Face Bone Descriptions and function
1. Lacrimal (2) Medial wall of orbit, behind frontal process of maxilla. Small, thin,
rectangular; contains depression for lacrimal sacs, nasolacrimal tear duct.
2. Mandible (1) Lower jaw, extending from chin to mandibular fossa of temporal bone.
Largest, strongest facial bone; horseshoe-shaped horizontal bony with two
perpendicular rami; contains tooth sockets,coronoid, condylar, alveolar processes,
mental foramina. forms lower jaw, part of temporomandibular joint; site of
attachment for muscles.
3. Maxillae (2) Upper jaw and anterior part of hard palate. Made up of zygomatic,
frontal, palatine, alveolar processes; contain infraorbital foramina,maxillary sinuses,
tooth sockets. Form upper jaw, front of hard palate, part of eye sockets.
4. Nasal (2) Upper bridge of nose between frontal processes of maxillae. Small, oblong;
attached to a nasal cartilage. Form supports for bridge of upper nose.
5. Palatine (2) Posterior part of hard palate, floor of nasal cavity and orbit; posterior to
maxillae. L-shaped, with horizontal and vertical plates; contain greater and lesser
palatine foramina. Horizontal plate forms posterior part of hard palate; vertical plate
forms part of wall of nasal cavity, floor of orbit.
6. Vomer (1) Posterior and inferior part of nasal septum. Thin,shaped like plowshare.
Forms posterior and inferior nasal septum dividing nasal cavities.
7. Zygomatic (2) Cheekbones below and lateral to orbit. Curved lateral part of (molar)
cheekbones; made up of temporal process,
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 Face bone ……….
8. Inferor nasal conchae (2) Paired, thin curved bones in the
nasal cavity Project medially from the lateral walls of the
nasal cavity, just inferior to the middle nasals conchae.
9 Hyoid(1) Below root of tongue, above larynx. U-shaped,
suspended from styloid process of temporal bone; site of
attachment for some muscles used in speaking, swallowing.
Ear bone (Ossicles of ear(6) Inside cavity of petrous portion
of temporal bone. Tiny bones Incus(2) shaped like anvil,
hammer, stirrup, articulating with one another malleus (2)
and attached to tympanic membrane. Convey sound
vibrations stapes (2) from eardrum to oval window.

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• Orbits
• A pyramid shaped space that contains the eyeball &associate structures. It is formed
by bones of the skull. Orbit has four walls and apex:
• • The roof of the orbit consists of parts of the frontal &sphenoid bone.
• • The lateral wall is formed by portions of zygomatic andsphenoid bone.
• • The floor of the orbit is formed by parts of the maxilla,zygomatic and palatine bone.
• • The medial wall is formed by portion of the maxilla,lacrimal, ethimoid & sphenoid
bone.
• In the orbit there are openings that pass structures. Some of the principal openings
and And the structures passing through are: Optic foramen (canal) passes optic nerve
Superior orbital fissure passes supra orbit nerve and artery.
• Inferior orbital fissure passes maxillary branch of trigeminal and zygomatic nerve and
infra orbital vessel.
• Supra orbital foramen (notch) passes occulomotor, trochlear,ophthalmic branch of
trigeminal and abducent nerves. Canal for naso lacrimal duct passes naso lacrimal
duct.
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 The vertebral column
• The vertebral column together with the sternum & ribs constitutes the
skeleton of the trunk of the body. It composes 2/5th of the height of the
body and has average length in male of 71 c.m. and in female 61 c.m.
• The adult vertebral column contains 26 vertebras.
• Prior to fusion of sacral & coccygeal vertebrae the total number is 33.
• It is a strong and flexible to either direction & rotated on it self.
• Encloses &protect spinal cord, supports the head and serves as a point of
attachment for the ribs & muscles of the back.
• Inter vertebral discs
• Between adjacent vertebrae from 1st to sacrum there are inter vertebral
discs.
• They are fibro-cartilaginous. Each disc is composed of the outer fibrous
ring consisting fibro-cartilage
• called annulus fibrosis and the inner soft, pulpy highly elastic structure
called the nucleus pulpous. The disc permits various movement of the
vertebral column, absorb shock and form a strong joint.
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 Normal curves
• The vertebral column when viewed from side is not a straight line rather
have bandings. These are normal curves of the vertebral column.
 There are 4 normal curves formed by vertebras,
I. the two are concave and
II. the two are convex.
• The presences of the curve have several functions; these are
 absorption of shock,
 maintenance of balance,
 protection of column from fracture and
 increasing the strength of the column.
• The cervical & lumbar curves are an interiorly convex and because they
are modification of the fetal position they are called secondary curves.
• The thoracic and sacral curves are interiorly concave, since they retain
the anterior concavity of the fetal curve they are referred primary
curves.
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 Typical vertebra
• Although there are variations in size and shape, the vertebras of the
different region have basically similar structure. It consist the body,
vertebral arch and seven processes.
• The body (Centrum), thick, disc shaped, anterior part. It has superior and
inferior roughened area for attachment with intervertebral discs.
• The vertebral (neural) arch extends posterior from the body of the
vertebrae. With the body it surrounds the spinal cord. It is formed by two
short, thick process called pedicles. It projects posteriorly to meet at
laminae. The laminae are flat parts that join to form the posterior portion
of the vertebral arch. The space that lies between the vertebral arch and
body contains the spinal cord called vertebral foramina. The vertebral
foramina of all vertebras together form the vertebral (spinal) canal. The
pedicles are notched superiorly & inferiorly to form an opening between
vertebrae on each side of the column called Intervertibral foramen.
Intervertibral foramen is an opening between the vertebras that serves as
passage of nerves that come out of spinal cord to supply the various body
parts.
• There are seven processes that arise from the vertebral arch at the point
where the lamina and pedicle joins.
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Bones Description and function
 Cervical vertebrae (7) First (atlas),
second (axis), and seventh vertebrae
are C1-C7 modified; third through sixth
are typical; all contain transverse
foramina. Atlas supports head, permits
"yes" motion of head at joint between
skull and atlas; axis Permits "no"
motion at joint between axis and atlas.
 Thoracic vertebrae (12) Bodies and
transverse processes have facets that
articulate T1-T12 with ribs; laminae
are short, thick, and broad. Articulate
with ribs; allow some movement of
spine in thoracic area.
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Figure: 5.11 Typical vertebra
 Lumbar vertebrae(5) Largest, strongest vertebrae;
adapted for attachment of back L1-L5 muscles. Support
back mus cles; allow forward and backward bending of
spine.
 Sacrum Wedge-shaped, made up of five fused bodies
united by four (5 fused bones) intervertebral disks.
Support vertebral column; give strength and stability to
pelvis.
 Coccyx Triangular tailbone, united with sacrum by
intervertebral (3 to 5 fused bones) disk. Vestige of an
embryonic tail.
NB: -In a child there are 33 separate vertebrae, the 9 in
the sacrum and coccyx not yet being fused.
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 The Thorax
Refers to the chest. Thorax is a bony cage formed by
sternum (breast bone), costal cartilage, ribs and
bodies of the thoracic vertebra.

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 Sternum (breast bone)
• Sternum is flat, narrow bone measuring
about 15 c.m. (6 inch) located in the
median line of anterior thoracic wall. It
consists 3 basic portions: the manubrium
(superior portion), the body (middle &
largest portion) and the xiphoid process
(inferior & smallest portion). The junction
of the manubrium and the body forms the
sternal angle. The manubrium on its
superior portion has a depression called
jugular (supra sternal) notch.
• On each side of the jugular notch are
clavicular notch that articulates with
medial end of clavicle.
• The manubrium also articulates with the
1st and 2nd rib. The body of the sternum
articulates directly or indirectly with 2nd to
10th rib. The xiphoid process consists
hyaline cartilage during infancy and child
hood and do not ossify completely up to
the age of 40.
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 Ribs
• Human being contains 12 Pair of ribs that make up the side of thoracic cavity. Ribs increase in
length from 1st through 7th and they decrease in length through 12th.
• Each ribs posteriorly articulates with the body of its corresponding thoracic vertebra.
• Anteriorly the 1st 7 ribs have direct attachment to sternum by costal cartilage hence they are
called true (vertebro – sternal) ribs.
• The remaining 5 ribs are called false ribs. The 8th – 10th ribs, which are groups of the false ribs
are called vertebro chondrial ribs because their cartilage attach one another and then attaches
to the cartilage of the 7th rib.
• The 11th & 12th ribs are designated as floating ribs because their anterior part even doesn't
attach indirectly to sternum.
• Although there is variation when we examine a typical rib (3rd to 9th) contains a head, neck and
body parts.
• The Head is a projection at posterior end of the rib. It consist one or two facet that articulate
with facet of the vertebra.
• The neck is constricted portion just lateral to the head. One or two knob like structures on the
posterior end where the neck joins the body is the tubercles, which articulate with the
transverse process of the vertebra and to attach with muscles of the trunk.
• The body (shaft) is main part of the rib. . The costal angle is the site where the rib changes its
direction. The inner side of the costal angle is costal grove. Where thoracic nerves and blood
vessels are protected.
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 5.2.4 The Appendicular skeleton
• The upper extremities (limbs)
• The upper extremities consists of 64 bones. Connected and
supported by the axial skeleton with only shoulder joint and
many muscle from a complex of suspension bands from the
vertebral column, ribs and sternum to the shoulder girdle.
1. Shoulder (Pectoral) Girdle
a. CLAVICLE (2) Collarbone; double-curved, long bone with
rounded medial end and flattened lateral end; held in place by
ligaments.
• Holds shoulder joint and arm away from thorax so upper limb
can swing freely.
b. Scapula (2) Shoulder blade; flat, triangular bone with
horizontal spine separating fossae. Site of attachment for
muscles
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2. Arm
a. Humerus (2) Longest, largest bone of upper limb; forms ball of
balland socket joint with glenoid fossa of scapula. Site of
attachment for muscles of shoulder and arm, permitting arm to
flex and extend at elbow.
3. Forearm
a. Ulnar (2) Smaller of two
bones in forearm;
b. Radius (2) Larger of two bones
in forearm; large proximal end
consists of olecranon process
(prominence of elbow).
• Forms hinge joint at elbow.

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 The upper extremities (limbs)…….
4. Wrist
1. Carpals (16) Small short bones; in each wrist, 8 carpals in 2 transverse rows of 4. With attached
ligaments, allow slight gliding movement.
2. 4 proximal carpal bones
 Scaphoid bone: near styloid process
 Lunate bone: medial to scaphoid
 Triquetrum: medial to lunate bone
 Pisiform bone: anterior to triquetrum
3. 4 distal carpal bones
– Trapezium: lateral
– Trapezoid bone: medial to trapezium
– Capitate bone: largest
– Hamate bone: medial, distal
Hands and Fingers
Metacarpals (10) Five miniature long bones in each hand in fanlike arrangement;
articulate with fingers at metacarpophalangeal joint (the Knuckle).
• Aid opposition movement of thumb; enable cupping of hand.
Phalanges (28) Miniature long bones, 2 in each thumb, 3 in each finger; articulate with
each other at interphalangeal joint.
• Allow fingers to participate in stable grips.
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The lower extremity
• It consist 62 bones. The lower extremity is connected to the
axial skeleton with the hip girdle.
• Bone Description and function
• Pelvic Girdle
• Hipbone Irregular bone formed by fusion of ilium, ischium,
pubis; with (Coxal) (2) sacrum and coccyx forms pelvis; forms
socket of ball-and-
socket joint with femur.
• Site of attachment
for trunk and lower limb
muscles; transmits body
weight to femur.
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 The lower extremity……..
 Thigh
1. Femur (2) Thighbone; typical long bone; longest, strongest, heaviest bone;
forms ball of ball-and-socket joint with pelvic bones;provides articular surface
for knee. Supports body.
2. Patella (2) Kneecap; sesamoid bone within quadriceps femuris
tendon.Increases leverage for quadriceps muscle by keeping tendon Away from
axis of rotation.
 Leg
1. Fibula (2) Smaller long bone of lower leg; articulates proximally with tibia and
distally with talus. Bears little body weight, but gives strength to ankle joint.
2. Tibia (2) Larger long bone of lower leg; articulates with femur fibula,talus.
Supports body weight, transmitting it from femur to talus.
 Ankle
1. Tarsals (14) Ankle, heel bones; short bones; 7 in each ankle including :-
-talus, -navicular,
-calcaneus, -cuboid,
-3 cuneiforms; with metatarsals, form arches of foot.
bear body weight; raise body and transmit thrust during running and walking.
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 The lower extremity…….
 Foot and Toes
1. Metatarsals (10) Miniature long bones; 5 in each foot; form
sole; with tarsal,form arches of feet. Improve stability while
standing; absorb shocks; bear weight; aid in locomotion.
2. Phalange (28) Toes; miniature long bones; 2 in each big toe,
3 in each other toe; arranged as in hand. Provide stability
during locomotion.
Arches of the foot
• The sole of your foot is arched for the same reason that your
spine is curved. Beside its function of absorbing shock it
prevents nerves and blood vessels in the sole of the foot
from being crushed.
• There are three arches in the foot, two longitudinal (medial
&lateral) and one transverse.
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 5.7 Articulations
• Bones being structural framework, muscles give it power. But movable joints provide the
mechanism that allows the body to move.
• Articulations (joints) are places where two adjacent bones or cartilages meet.
• Functions
• Give the skeleton mobility
• Hold the skeleton together
• Structural Classification of Joints:
Structural classification focuses on the material binding bones together and whether or not a joint
cavity is present
• The three structural classifications are:
1. Fibrous
2. Cartilaginous
3. Synovial
• Functional Classification of Joints:
Functional classification is based on the amount of movement allowed by the joint
• The three functional class of joints are:
1. Synarthroses – immovable
2. Amphiarthroses – slightly movable
3. Diarthroses – freely movable
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 1. Fibrous Structural Joints
• The bones are jointed by fibrous tissues
• There is no joint cavity
• Most are immovable
• There are threetypes – sutures,
-syndesmoses,
-and gomphoses
Fibrous Structural Joints: Sutures
• Occur between the bones of the skull
• Comprised of interlocking junctions completely filled with CT fibers
• Bind bones tightly together, but allow for growth during youth
• In middle age, skull bones fuse and are called synostoses
Fibrous Structural Joints: Syndesmoses
• Bones are connected by a fibrous tissue ligament
• Movement varies from immovable to slightly variable
• Examples include the connection between the tibia and fibula, and the radius and
ulna
Fibrous Structural Joints: Gomphoses
• The peg-in-socket fibrous joint between a tooth and its alveolar socket
• The fibrous connection is the periodontal ligament
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 2.Cartilaginous Joints
• Articulating bones are united by cartilage
• Lack a joint cavity
• Two types – synchondroses and symphyses
Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondroses
• A bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites the bones
• All synchondroses are synarthrotic
Examples include:
• Epiphyseal plates of children
• Joint between the costal cartilage of the first rib and the sternum
Cartilaginous Joints: Symphyses
• Hyaline cartilage covers the articulating surface of the bone and
is fused to an intervening pad of fibrocartilage
• Amphiarthrotic joints designed for strength and flexibility
• Examples include intervertebral joints and the pubic symphysis
of the pelvis
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 3. Synovial Joints
• Those joints in which the articulating bones are separated by a fluid-
containing joint cavity
• All are freely movable diarthroses
Examples – all limb joints, and most joints of the body
Synovial Joints: General Structure
• Synovial joints all have the following:
• Articular cartilage
• Joint (synovial) cavity
• Articular capsule
• Synovial fluid
• Reinforcing ligaments
Synovial Joints: Range of Motion
• Nonaxial – slipping movements only
• Uniaxial – movement in one plane
• Biaxial – movement in two planes
• Multiaxial – movement in or around all three planes
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 movement at Synovial Joints
• Gliding Movements
• • One flat bone surface glides or slips over another similar surface
• • Examples – intercarpal and intertarsal joints, and between the flat articular processes
of the vertebrae
• Angular Movement
– Flexion
– Extension
– Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion of the foot
– Abduction
– Adduction
– Circumduction
• Rotation
• • The turning of a bone around its own long axis
• • Examples: Between first two vertebrae,• Hip and shoulder joints
• Special Movements
– Supination and pronation
– Inversion and eversion
– Protraction and retraction
– Elevation and depression
– Opposition
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 Types of Synovial Joints
• Plane joints
Articular surfaces are essentially flat
Allow only slipping or gliding movements
Only examples of nonaxial joints
• Hinge joints
• Cylindrical projections of one bone fits into a trough-shaped surface on another
• Motion is along a single plane
• Uniaxial joints permit flexion and extension only
• Examples: elbow and interphalangeal joints
Pivot Joints
• Rounded end of one bone protrudes into a “sleeve,” or ring, composed of bone (and possibly
ligaments) of another
• Only uniaxial movement allowed
• Examples: joint between the axis and the dens, and the proximal radioulnar joint
Condyloid, or Ellipsoidal, Joints
• Oval articular surface of one bone fits into a complementary depression in another
• Both articular surfaces are oval
• Biaxial joints permit all angular motions
• Examples: radiocarpal (wrist) joints, and metacarpophalangeal (knuckle) joints
Saddle Joints
• Similar to condyloid joints but with greater movement
• Each articular surface has both a concave and a convex surface
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 Types of Synovial Joints…….
Ball-and-Socket Joints
• A spherical or hemispherical head of one bone articulates with a cuplike socket of another
• Multiaxial joints permit the most freely moving synovial joints
• Examples: shoulder and hip joints
Synovial Joints: Shoulder (Glenohumeral)
• Ball-and-socket joint in which stability is sacrificed to obtain greater freedom of movement
• Head of humerus articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula
Synovial Joints: Shoulder Stability
• Weak stability is maintained by:
• Thin, loose joint capsule
• Four ligaments – coracohumeral, and three glenohumeral
• Tendon of the long head of biceps, which travels through the intertubercular groove and secures
the humerus to the glenoid cavity
• Rotator cuff (four tendons) encircles the shoulder joint and blends with the articular capsule
Synovial Joints: Knee
• Largest and most complex joint of the body
• Allow flexion, extension, and some rotation
• Three joints in one surrounded by a single joint cavity
• Femoropatellar
• Lateral and medial tibiofemoral joints
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