Chapter 1 – Introduction and the First Law of

Thermodynamics

Learning Outcomes
When you complete your study of this chapter, you will be able to...
• Understand Basic Definitions used in thermodynamics
• Apply SI and English Engineering units, including units for specific
volume, pressure, and temperature.
• Work with the Kelvin, Rankine, Celsius, and Fahrenheit temperature
scales.
1–1 ■ Thermodynamics and Energy
• Thermodynamics can be defined as
the science of energy.
• Although everybody has a feeling of
“what energy is”, it is difficult to
give a precise definition for it.
• Energy can be viewed as the ability
to cause changes.
• The change in the energy content of
a body or any other system is equal
to the difference between the energy
input and the energy output, and the
energy balance is expressed as
Ein – Eout = ∆E Energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it can only change forms
(the first law).
 1.1 Heat, work, and the system
• Heat is a form of energy which is transferred
from one body to another body at a lower
temperature, by virtue of the temperature
difference between the bodies
• For example, when a body A at a certain
temperature, say 20 °C, is brought into contact
with a body B at a higher temperature, say 30°C,
then there will be a transfer of heat from B to A
until the temperatures of A and B are equal
• When the temperature of A is the same as the temperature of B no
heat transfer takes place between the bodies, and they are said to be
in thermal equilibrium.
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
1–3 Systems and Control Volumes
• A system is defined as a quantity of matter
or a region in space chosen for study.
• The mass or region outside the system is
called the surroundings.
• The real or imaginary surface that separates
the system from its surroundings is called
the boundary – Boundary is identifiable
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
Closed and Open System
• A closed system (also known as a control
mass or just system when the context
makes it clear) consists of a fixed amount
of mass, and no mass can cross its
boundary. A closed system with a
moving boundary
• That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed
system. But energy, in the form of heat or
work, can cross the boundary; and
• the volume of a closed system does not have
to be fixed - it can change
• If, as a special case, even energy is not
allowed to cross the boundary, that system is
called an isolated system
• An open system, or a control volume, is a
properly selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.
• Flow through these devices is best studied
by selecting the region within the device as
the control volume.
• Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
1–4 ■ Properties of a System
• Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
• Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and
mass m.
• The list can be extended to include less familiar ones such as viscosity,
thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and elevation.
• Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature, pressure
• Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size—or
extent—of the system.
• Total mass, total volume, and total momentum are some examples of
extensive properties.
• Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Such
as specific volume ( v = V/m) and specific total energy (e = E/m).
1–5 ■ Density and Specific Gravity
• Density is defined as mass per unit volume

• The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined

as volume per unit mass. That is,

• Specific gravity, or relative density, and is defined as the ratio of

the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance
at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which
rH2O=1000 kg/m3). That is,
• The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific weight
and is expressed as:
Specific weight: γs=ρg (N/m3)
1–6 ■ State and Equilibrium
• Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this
point, all the properties can be measured or calculated
throughout the entire system, which gives us a set of
properties that completely describes the condition, or
the state, of the system.
• At a given state, all the properties of a system have
fixed values.
• The state of a simple compressible system is
completely specified by two independent, intensive
properties – It is called state postulate
• Equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an The state of
equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or nitrogen is fixed
driving forces) within the system. by two
independent,
• A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when intensive
it is isolated from its surroundings. properties.
• There are many types of equilibrium. A system is
in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the
same throughout the entire system, as shown in
Figure
• That is, the system involves no temperature
differential, which is the driving force for heat
flow.
• If there is no change in pressure in a system, it will
be an example of Mechanical Equilibrium
• If a system involves two phases, it is in phase
equilibrium when the mass of each phase reaches
an equilibrium level and stays there.
• A system is in chemical equilibrium if its
chemical composition does not change with time,
that is, no chemical reactions occur.
A system will not be in equilibrium unless all the
relevant equilibrium criteria are satisfied.
1–7 ■ Processes and Cycles
• Any change that a system undergoes
from one equilibrium state to another
is called a process,
• The series of states through which a
system passes during a process is
called the path of the process

• To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and

final states of the process, as well as the path it follows, and the
interactions with the surroundings
• An isothermal process, for example, is a process during which the
temperature T remains constant;
• an isobaric process is a process during which the pressure P
remains constant; and
• an isochoric (or isometric) process is a process during which
the specific volume v remains constant.
• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its
initial state at the end of the process. That is, for a cycle the
initial and final states are identical.
The Steady-Flow Process
• The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in engineering,
• The term steady implies no change with time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.
• The term uniform, however, implies no change with location over a
specified region.
• A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of
time under the same conditions, (for example, power plant) and they
are classified as steady-flow devices.
• Processes involving such devices can be represented reasonably well
by a somewhat idealized process, called the steady-flow process,
which can be defined as a process during which a fluid flows
through a control volume steadily
• That is, the fluid properties can
change from point to point (in
space) within the control volume,
but at any fixed point they remain
the same during the entire
process.
• Therefore, the volume V, the mass
m, and the total energy content E
of the control volume remain
constant during a steady flow
process
1–8 ■Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• We are familiar with temperature as a measure of “hotness” or
“coldness,” . There is no better way to explain temperature.
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be
restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same
temperature reading even if they are not in contact
• At that point, the heat transfer stops, and the two bodies are said to have
reached thermal equilibrium. The equality of temperature is the only
requirement for thermal equilibrium

Figure: Two bodies reaching thermal

equilibrium after being brought into
contact in an isolated enclosure
Temperature Scales
Kelvin and Rankine Temperature Scales
• The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale
that provides a continuous definition of temperature, valid over all
ranges of temperature. The unit of temperature on the Kelvin scale is
the kelvin (K).
• The Kelvin is the SI base unit for temperature.
• Kelvin scale has a zero of 0 K, and lower temperatures than this are
not defined.
• By definition, the Rankine scale , the unit of which is the degree
rankine (°R), is proportional to the Kelvin temperature according to
1.7.3 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales
Temperature Conversions
1.6 Pressure
• Let us consider a small area A passing through a point in a fluid at
rest.
• The fluid on one side of the area exerts a compressive force on it
that is normal to the area, Fnormal
• An equal but oppositely directed force is exerted on the area by the
fluid on the other side.
• For a fluid at rest, no other forces than these act on the
area.
• The pressure p at the specified point is defined as the limit
• If the area is given new orientations by rotating it around the
given point, and the pressure determined for each new
orientation, it would be found that the pressure at the point is the
same in all directions as long as the fluid is at rest
• This is because of the equilibrium of forces acting on an element
of volume surrounding the point.
• However, the pressure can vary from point to point within a fluid
at rest; examples are the variation of atmospheric pressure with
elevation and the pressure variation with height/ depth, such as in
Murree atmospheric pressure is less than that at sea level. Further,
oceans, lakes, and other bodies of water.
• Variation of Pressure with height is given by relation:
p = ρgh
Where: ρ : Density
g : gravity
h : height
Absolute and Gauge Pressure
• Absolute pressure : is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is
equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
• Gauge pressure : is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is
equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure
Pressure Measurement
1. Manometers and
2. Barometers
• Manometers, measure pressure in terms of the length of a
column of liquid such as mercury, water, or oil.
• It has one end open to the atmosphere and the other attached to a
tank containing a gas at a uniform pressure.
• Since pressures at equal elevations in a continuous mass of a
liquid or gas at rest are equal, the pressures at points a and b are
equal.
p = patm + ρgL
Barometers
• Barometer, shown is formed by a closed tube filled
with liquid mercury and a small amount of mercury
vapor inverted in an open container of liquid mercury.
• Since the pressures at points a and b are equal, a force
balance gives the
patm = pvapor + ρm gL
• Since pvapor is small as compared to atmospheric
pressure, so
patm = ρm gL

• Pressures measured with manometers and barometers

are frequently expressed in terms of the length L in
millimeters of mercury (mmHg), inches of mercury
(inHg), inches of water (inH2O), and so on.
Question: Find the atmospheric pressure in feet of water column??

Density of water ρ = 62.4 lbm/ft3

Atmospheric Pressure patm = 14.7 lbf/in2
Acceleration due to gravity g = 32.2 ft/sec2
• A Bourdon tube gage is shown in Figure.
• It consists of a curved tube having an
elliptical cross section with one end
attached to the pressure to be measured
and the other end connected to a pointer
by a mechanism.
• When fluid under pressure fills the tube,
the elliptical section tends to become
circular, and the tube straightens.
This motion is transmitted by the
mechanism to the pointer.
• By calibrating the deflection of the pointer for known pressures, a
graduated scale can be determined from which any applied pressure
can be read in suitable units.
• Because of its construction, the Bourdon tube measures the pressure
relative to the pressure of the surroundings existing at the instrument.
• So this measure GAUGE PRESSURE
Problem 1-54 The absolute pressure in water at a depth of 9 m is
read to be 185 kPa. Determine (a) the local atmospheric pressure,
and (b) the absolute pressure at a depth of 5 m in a liquid whose
specific gravity is 0.85 at the same location.
Problem 1–62 A gas is contained in a vertical, frictionless piston–
cylinder device. The piston has a mass of 3.2 kg and a cross sectional
area of 35 cm2. A compressed spring above the piston exerts a force of
150 N on the piston. If the atmospheric pressure is 95 kPa, determine
the pressure inside the cylinder.
 End
of
Chapter 1
Thermodynamics
2–2 ■ Forms of Energy
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as
– thermal,
– mechanical,
– kinetic,
– potential,
– electric, magnetic,
– chemical, and nuclear,
• their sum constitutes the total energy E of a system.
• The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e
and is expressed as
At least six different forms of energy are encountered in
bringing power from a nuclear plant to our home: nuclear,
thermal, mechanical, kinetic, magnetic, and electrical
• In thermodynamic analysis, it is often helpful to consider the various
forms of energy that make up the total energy of a system in two
groups:
– Macroscopic, and
– microscopic.
• The macroscopic forms of energy are those which, a system
possesses as a whole with respect to some outside reference frame,
such as kinetic and potential energies. The macroscopic form of
energy is related to motion and influence of external forces
including magnetic, gravity, electricity, surface tension, etc.
• The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity, and
they are independent of outside reference frames.
• The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the
internal energy of a system and is denoted by U.
Kinetic Energy
• Due to motion KE = kJ
• Kinetic energy per unit mass: ke = kJ/kg
Potential Energy
• Due to elevation in gravitational field PE = mgz kJ
• Potential energy per unit mass pe = gz kJ/kg
• The magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects are significant in
some specialized cases only and are usually ignored.
• With this assumption, the total energy E is represented as:
E = U + KE + PE = U + + mgz kJ
• For a unit mass:
e = u + ke + pe = u + + gz kJ/kg
Energy Due to Mass Flow
• Control volumes typically involve fluid flow for long periods of
time, such as in power plants, dams, etc.
• it is convenient to express the energy flow associated with a fluid
stream in the rate form.
• This is done by incorporating the mass flow rate , which is the
amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time.
• It is related to the volume flow rate , which is the volume of a fluid
flowing through a cross section per unit time, by
Mechanical Energy Transfer (due to Pressure variation)
• A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by raising its
pressure,
• A turbine extracts mechanical energy from a fluid by dropping its
pressure.
• Therefore, the pressure of a flowing fluid is also associated with
its mechanical energy
• In fact, the pressure unit Pa is equivalent to
Pa=N/m2 = N·m/m3 = J/m3,
which is energy per unit volume,
• and the product PV or its equivalent P/ρ has the unit J/kg, which is
energy per unit mass.
• Note that pressure itself is not a form of energy but a pressure force
acting on a fluid through a distance produces work, called flow
work, in the amount of P/ρ per unit mass.
• Flow work is expressed in terms of fluid properties, and it is
convenient to view it as part of the energy of a flowing fluid
and call it flow energy
• Total Mechanical Energy of the flowing fluid is:
Mechanical Energy in the rate form is given by
Example 2–2 Wind Energy
A site evaluated for a wind farm is observed to have steady winds at
a speed of 8.5 m/s (Fig. 2–13). Determine the wind energy (a) per
unit mass, (b) for a mass of 10 kg, and (c) for a flow rate of 1154
kg/s for air
2–3 ■ Energy Transfer By Heat
• Heat is defined as the form of energy that is
transferred between two systems (or a system
and its surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference
• That is, an energy interaction is heat only if it
takes place because of a temperature difference
• Then it follows that there cannot be any heat transfer between
two systems that are at the same temperature
• The amount of heat transferred during the process between two
states (states 1 and 2) is denoted by Q12, or just Q. Heat transfer
per unit mass of a system is denoted q and is determined from

J/kg
• Sometimes it is desirable to know the rate of heat transfer (the
amount of heat transferred per unit time) instead of the total heat
transferred over some time interval
• The heat transfer rate is denoted by , kJ/s or kW
• Heat transfer from time t1 to t2 is given as:
2–4 ■ Energy Transfer by Work
• Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and
its surroundings.
• As mentioned earlier, energy can cross the boundary of a
closed system in the form of heat or work. Therefore, if the
energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it
must be work.
• Work is also a form of energy transferred like heat and,
therefore, has energy units such as kJ. The work done during a
process between states 1 and 2 is denoted by W12, or simply
W. The work done per unit mass of a system is denoted by w
and is expressed as

• The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted .
• The unit of power is kJ/s, or kW.
2–6 ■ The First Law of Thermodynamics
• Based on experimental observations, the
first law of thermodynamics states that
energy can be neither created nor
destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms.
• Therefore, every bit of energy should be
accounted for during a process
• Let us consider few cases:
A. Baking of Potato
• From the figure, it can be seen that
5kJ of energy (Qin) is introduced and
was used (absorbed) in baking of
Potato.
• The increase in the energy ∆E of a potato in an oven is equal
to the amount of heat transferred to it
A. Heating of water in a pan on top of a range
• If 15 kJ of heat is transferred to the
water from the heating element and 3 kJ
of it is lost from the water to the
surrounding air,
• the increase in energy of the water will
be equal to the net heat transfer to water,
which is 12 kJ.
B. When a system undergoes a thermodynamic
cycle then the net heat supplied to the
system from its surroundings plus the net
work input to the system from its
surroundings

From Figure
∆E = Win + Qin – Qout
∆E = 6 + (15 –3)
= 18 kJ
FIGURE 2–1
A refrigerator operating with its door open in a well-sealed and well-
insulated room.
• What will happen to the temperature of this room?
– Increasing
– Decreasing
– Remain Constant
• Remember the conservation of
energy principle
• We take it for granted
Energy Balance
• The conservation of energy principle can be expressed as follows: The net
change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a
process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the
total energy leaving the system during that process. That is,

• This implies that, the determination of the energy change of a system

during a process involves the evaluation of the energy of the system at the
beginning and at the end of the process, and taking their difference. That is,
Energy change = Energy at final state – Energy at initial state
∆Esystem = Efinal – Einitial = E2 – E1
Energy Balance For Closed Systems
• According to first law of thermodynamics, the only ways the energy
of a closed system can be changed are through transfer of energy by
work or by heat, i.e.

E2 – E 1 = Q – W
E2 – E1 = ∆KE + ∆PE + ∆U = Q – W
Example 2–10 Cooling of a Hot Fluid in a Tank
A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred by a
paddle wheel. Initially, the internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During
the cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and the paddle wheel
does 100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine the final internal energy of
the fluid. Neglect the energy stored in the paddle wheel.
Reversible and Irreversible Process
• A process is called irreversible if the system and all parts of its
surroundings cannot be exactly restored to their respective initial states
after the process has occurred.
• A process is reversible if both the system and surroundings can be
returned to their initial states.
• Another definition is “When a system changes state in such a way that
at any instant during the process the state point can be located on the
diagram, then the process is said to be reversible”
• The Criteria of reversibility is
– The process must be frictionless. The fluid itself must have no
internal friction and there must be no mechanical friction (e.g.
between cylinder and piston).
– The difference in pressure between the fluid and its surroundings
during the process must be infinitely small. This means that the
process must take place infinitely slowly, since the force to
accelerate the boundaries of the system is infinitely small.
Reversible Work
• Let us evaluate the work done by the closed system shown consisting of a
gas (or liquid) contained in a piston–cylinder assembly as the gas expands.
• During the process, the gas pressure exerts a normal force on the piston.
• Let p denote the pressure acting at the interface between the gas and the
piston.
• The force exerted by the gas on the piston = pA, where A is the area of the
piston face.
• The work done by the system as the piston is displaced a distance dx is
dW = pA dx or dW = p dV, since Adx = dV
• For a change in
volume from V1 to V2,
the work is obtained
by integrating
Example 2.1 A gas in a piston–cylinder assembly undergoes an
expansion process for which the relationship between pressure
and volume is given by
pVn = constant
The initial pressure is 3 bar, the initial volume is 0.1 m 3, and the final
volume is 0.2 m3. Determine the work for the process, in kJ, if
(a) n = 1.5, (b) n = 1.0, and (c) n = 0.
2.6 Energy Analysis of Cycles
• In this section we shall apply the
equations of work and energy on
Cycles.
• A thermodynamic cycle is a
sequence of processes that
begins and ends at the same
state.
• At the conclusion of a cycle all
properties have the same values
they had at the beginning.
• Consequently, over the cycle the system experiences no net change
of state.
• Cycles that are repeated periodically play prominent roles in many
areas of application.
• For example, steam circulating through an electrical power plant
executes a cycle
2.6.1 Cycle Energy Balance
• The energy balance for any system undergoing a thermodynamic
cycle takes the form
∆Ecycle = ∆Qcycle – ∆Wcycle
• Since the process returns to the original state, therefore, ∆Ecycle = 0
• Therefore, equation becomes:
∆Qcycle = ∆Wcycle
• This is an expression of the conservation of energy principle that
must be satisfied by every thermodynamic cycle, regardless of the
– sequence of processes followed by the system undergoing the
cycle or
– the nature of the substances making up the system.
2.6.2 Power Cycles
• Systems undergoing cycles of the type
shown in Fig. deliver a net work transfer
of energy to their surroundings during each
cycle.
• Such cycle is called a power cycle.
• The net work output equals the net heat
transfer to the cycle, or
Wcycle = Qin – Qout
• Qin and Qout are heat in and heat out
respectively
• Thermal efficiency of the power cycle is given by:
Refrigeration and Heat Pump
2.6.3 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles
• refrigeration and heat pump cycles shown
in Figure
• For cycles of this type, Qin is the energy
transferred by heat into the system
undergoing the cycle from the cold body,
• Qout is the energy discharged by heat transfer
from the system to the hot body.
• To accomplish these energy transfers
requires a net work input, cycle.
• The quantities Qin, Qout, and Wcycle are related by the energy balance,
which for refrigeration and heat pump cycles takes the form
Wcycle = Qout – Qin
• Please note that refrigeration and heat pump cycles actually have
different objectives.
• The objective of a refrigeration cycle is to cool a refrigerated space
or to maintain the temperature within a dwelling or other building
below that of the surroundings.
• The objective of a heat pump is to maintain the temperature within a
dwelling or other building above that of the surroundings or to
provide heating for certain industrial processes that occur at elevated
temperatures.
• Since refrigeration and heat pump cycles have different objectives,
their performance parameters, called coefficients of performance, are
defined differently.
Refrigeration Cycles
• The performance of refrigeration cycles can be described as the ratio of
the amount of energy received by the system undergoing the cycle from
the cold body, Qin, to the net work into the system to accomplish this
effect, Wcycle.
• Thus, the coefficient of performance, β, is

• For a household refrigerator, Qout is discharged to the space in which the

refrigerator is located.
• Wcycle is usually provided in the form of electricity to run the motor that
drives the refrigerator
Heat Pump Cycles
• The performance of heat pumps can be described as the ratio of the
amount of energy discharged from the system undergoing the cycle
to the hot body, Qout, to the net work into the system to accomplish
this effect, Wcycle.
• Thus, the coefficient of performance, γ, is

• From this equation it can be seen that the value of g is never less
than unity. For residential heat pumps, the energy quantity Qin is
normally drawn from the surrounding atmosphere, the ground, or a
nearby body of water. Wcycle is usually provided by electricity
2–8E Calculate the total kinetic energy, in Btu, of an object with a mass
of 10 lbm when its velocity is 50 ft/s.
Answer: 0.50 Btu

2–9E Calculate the total potential energy, in Btu, of an object with a

mass of 200 lbm when it is 10 ft above a datum level at a location
where standard gravitational acceleration exists.
 End
of
Chapter 2
Thermodynamics
Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a Control Volume (4.4.1)
• For the one-inlet one-exit control volume with one-dimensional
flow shown in Fig. 4.5 the energy rate balance is

• where Ecv denotes the energy of the control volume at time t. The
terms and account, respectively, for the net rate of energy transfer
by heat and work across the boundary of the control volume at t
Evaluating Work for a Control Volume (4.4.2 Shapiro)
• Because work is always done on or by a control volume where matter flows
across
the boundary, it is convenient to separate the work term of above equation
into two contributions:
– One contribution is the work associated with the fluid pressure as mass is
introduced at inlets and removed at exits.
– The other contribution, denoted by includes all other work effects, such
as those associated with rotating shafts, displacement of the boundary,
and electrical effects.
• Consider the work at an exit e associated with the pressure of the flowing
matter.
• The rate of energy transfer by work can be expressed as the product of a
force and the velocity at the point of application of the force.
Work = Force x Distance
Rate of work = Force x Distance / time
Rate of Work = Force x Velocity
• We know, Force = Pressure x Area
Rate of Work = Pressure x Area x Velocity
• Accordingly, the rate at which work is done at the exit by the
normal force (normal to the exit area in the direction of flow) due to
pressure is the product of the normal force, peAe, and the fluid
velocity, Ve. That is:

• A similar expression can be written for the rate of energy transfer by

work into the control volume at inlet i.
• With these considerations, the work term of the energy rate
equation, can be written as
• where, in accordance with the sign convention for work, the term at
the inlet has a negative sign because energy is transferred into the
control volume there, and positive sign precedes the work term at
the exit because energy is transferred out of the control volume
there.
• With AV = , the above expression for work can be written as

• This is commonly referred to as flow work

One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume
Energy Rate Balance (4.4.3)
Example 5–3 Energy Transport by Mass
Steam is leaving a 4-L pressure cooker whose operating pressure is 150
kPa. It is observed that the amount of liquid in the cooker has decreased
by 0.6 L in 40 min after the steady operating conditions are established,
and the cross-sectional area of the exit opening is 8 mm2.bDetermine (a)
the mass flow rate of the steam and the exit velocity, (b) the total and
flow energies of the steam per unit mass, and (c) the rate at which
energy leaves the cooker by steam.
Analysis
(a) Saturation conditions exist in a pressure cooker at all times after the
steady operating conditions are established. Therefore, the liquid
has the properties of saturated liquid and the exiting steam has the
properties of saturated vapor at the operating pressure.
(b) The amount of liquid that has evaporated, the mass flow rate of the
exiting steam, and the exit velocity are
Properties The properties of saturated liquid water and water vapor at 150
kPa are (Table A–5).

vf = 0.001053 m3/kg,
vg = 1.1594 m3/kg,
ug = 2519.2 kJ/kg,
hg = 2693.1 kJ/kg

(b) Noting that h = u + Pv, therefore, pv = h – u

Since we are dealing with steam, so we will take hg and ug
pv = 2693.1 – 2519.2 = 173.9 kJ/kg

(c) e = u + ke + pe = u + v2/2 + gz

The flow energy = pv + e = θ which is equal to

θ = pv + u + v2/2 + gz

= 2.37 x 10-4 x 2693.1 = 0.638 kJ / kg or kW

 EXAMPLE 5–7 Power Generation by a Steam Turbine

The power output of an adiabatic steam turbine

is 5 MW, and the inlet and the exit conditions
of the steam are as indicated in Figure
a) Compare the magnitudes of ∆h, ∆ke, and
∆pe.
b) Determine the work done per unit mass of
the steam flowing through the turbine.
c) Calculate the mass flow rate of the steam.
 Since Q = 0

Dividing by the mass flow rate and substituting, the work done by the
turbine per unit mass of the steam is determined to be
EXAMPLE 5–8 Expansion of Refrigerant-134a in a Refrigerator
Refrigerant-134a enters the capillary tube of a refrigerator as saturated
liquid at 0.8 MPa and is throttled to a pressure of 0.12 MPa. Determine
the quality of the refrigerant at the final state and the temperature drop
during this process.